THE 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 
IN  A  DEMOCRACY 


HORACE  A.  HOLLISTER 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT  LOS  ANGELES 


t'j  1 5^  .''3 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/administrationofOOholliala 


THE 

AD^fINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

IN  A  DEMOCRACY 


THE 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

IN  A  DEMOCRACY 


BY 

HORACE  A.  HOLLISTER 

PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATION  AND  HIGH  SCHOOL  VISITOR  AT  THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF    ILLINOIS 

AUTHOR  OF   "high  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION" 


CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S    SONS 

NEW    YORK  CHICAGO  BOSTON 


COPTKIGHT,  19H    BY 

CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


CO 


EducatioD 
Libraiy 

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CV3 

TO   THE    MEMORY   OF 

<      - 

JOSIAH    L.    PICKARD 

TEACHER,    FRIEND,    AND    EXEMPLAR    OF 

A    NOBLE    CITIZENSHIP 

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2015C1 


"For  this  jealous  insistence  by  the  States  upon  their  sov- 
ereign power  in  school  affairs  I  have  only  praise.  Nothing  is 
more  dangerous  for  the  schools  than  an  all-inclusive  system 
that  reaches  out  over  broad  domains,  having  no  regard  for  ter- 
ritorial conditions,  much  less  for  purely  local  demands.  Free- 
dom in  administration  is  one  of  the  most  important  requisites 
for  the  success  of  the  public  schools." 

— Georg  Kerschensteiner, 
Director  of  the  schools  of  Munich,  Bavaria. 


PREFACE 

This  book  was  projected  with  the  idea  that  the  time 
is  here  for  such  a  preliminary  treatment,  as  an  organic 
whole,  of  the  field  of  educational  administration.  In 
seeking  for  a  unifying  principle  the  inevitable  choice 
fell  to  our  national  ideals  as  expressed  in  democracy  as 
we  Americans  have  conceived  it. 

The  aim  has  been  to  deal  with  principles,  giving  just 
enough  space  to  history  and  description  to  furnish  a 
suitable  background  and  to  account  for  sequences.  In 
this  way  only  did  it  seem  possible  to  deal  with  the  prob- 
lems presented  in  such  a  constructively  critical  manner 
as  the  situation  seemed  to  demand. 

The  book  makes  its  appeal  (i)  to  teachers  and  stu- 
dents of  education,  (2)  to  school  boards  and  all  school 
ofl&cials,  and  (3)  to  public  men  and  legislators  interested 
in  a  comprehensive  survey  of  the  problems  of  public 
education. 

For  materials  the  author  has  made  free  use  of  reports 
and  bulletins  of  the  United  States  Commissioner's  office, 
of  State  departments  of  education,  and  of  city  boards 
and  superintendents;  of  various  studies  by  educational 
experts  of  colleges  and  universities  and  among  school 
superintendents.     Perhaps  it  is  fair  to  say,  however, 


viii  PREFACE 

that  the  chief  source  has  been  from  an  experience  of 
over  thirty  years  in  direct  relationship  with  public 
schools  and  public  education,  and  as  a  constant  student 
of  the  problems  thus  presented. 

Acknowledgment  is  due  and  gratefully  expressed  for 
the  many  courtesies  of  school  oflScials  in  various  cities 
visited  or  where  application  was  made  for  published 
reports  and  other  documents  bearing  upon  the  subjects 
passed  in  review.  Especially  is  such  acknowledgment 
due  to  Doctor  L.  D.  Coffman,  of  the  School  of  Educa- 
tion, and  Dean  Eugene  Davenport,  of  the  College  of 
Agriculture,  University  of  Illinois,  for  careful  and  sym- 
pathetic reading  of  the  manuscript  and  for  numerous 
and  valuable  suggestions  and  criticisms. 

The  Author. 
University  of  Illinois, 
May,  1914. 


CONTENTS 
PART  ONE 

Field  and  Scope  of  Treatment  Outlined 

PAGE 

Chapter  I — Preliminary  Statement    ....        i 

I.  National  movements.  2.  Motives  for  organized  systems 
of  education.  3.  Steps  leading  to  secularization  of  education. 
4.  Causes  of  slow  development  of  popular  education.  5.  Con- 
ditions calculated  to  reveal  defects.  6.  Basis  and  method  of 
this  discussion. 

Chapter  II — National  Ideals  and  Standards      12 

I.  Massachusetts  leads  in  setting  up  ideals.  2.  Educa- 
tional ideals  of  early  statesmen.  3.  Federal  policy  concerning 
education.  4.  State  systems  and  the  training  of  teachers. 
Sw  Federal  land  grants.  6.  Bureau  of  Education  established. 
7.  Slowness  of  acceptance  by  the  masses.  8.  National  stand- 
ards set.    9.  Evidences  of  advancement. 

Chapter  III — Evolution     of     Free     Common 

Schools 24 

I.  Early  types.  2.  Beginnings  in  Germany.  3.  Beginnings 
in  the  Netherlands.  4.  Denmark.  5.  Norway.  6.  Austria. 
7.  Scotland  and  England.  8.  France.  9.  Simultaneous  de- 
velopment of  public  education.  10.  Description  of  the  Prus- 
sian system  as  a  type.  11.  Secularization  largely  the  result  of 
a  religious  movement.  12.  Beginnings  in  New  England. 
13.  Pennsylvania.  14.  New  York  and  New  Jersey.  15.  Del- 
aware and  Maryland.  16.  Virginia.  17.  The  Carolinas  and 
Georgia.  18.  Common  origin  and  character  in  Europe  and 
America.  19.  Some  striking  differences.  20.  The  United 
States  as  type  for  this  study.  21.  European  influence  upon 
America. 

ix 


X  CONTENTS 

PART  TWO 
Society's  Part  in  the  Administration  of  Education 

PAGE 

Chapter  IV — The  Establishment  of  Schools: 

Laws,  and  Units  of  Control    ....      44 

I.  Significance   of   constitutional   treatment   of   education. 

2.  Nature  and  extent  of  such  legislation.  3.  Appearance  of 
local  influences.  4.  Other  notable  provisions  in  State  constitu- 
tions. 5.  Influence  of  historical  movements  noted.  6.  Ten- 
dency toward  centralized  control.  7.  Constitutions  mark  evo- 
lution of  conception  of  democracy.  8.  Legislatures  have 
supplemented  constitutional  provisions.  9.  Units  of  control 
under  religious  influences.  10.  Development  of  city  units.  11. 
Principles  involved.  12.  Reasons  for  tendency  toward  cen- 
tralized control.  13.  Prevalence  of  local  district  control.  14. 
Changed  conditions  call  for  consolidation.  15.  The  district 
tested  by  the  three  principles.  16.  The  township  unit.  17. 
Township  units  tested.  18.  The  city  as  a  unit  of  control. 
19.  County  imits.  20.  The  same  tests  applied  to  the  county 
unit.  21.  The  State  considered  as  a  unit.  22.  National  con- 
trol and  influence. 

Chapter  V^The   Establishment   of   Schools 

(Continued).    Types  of  Schools  Set  Up      72 

I.  Principles  by  which  we  may  measure  and  test  our  school 
system.     2.  Components  of  our  national  system  of  education. 

3.  Kindergartens  and  elementary  schools.  4.  High  schools. 
5.  Statistical  summary.  6.  Higher  education.  7.  Industrial 
education.  8.  Normal  schools.  9.  Schools  for  defectives 
and  dehnquents.  10.  Military  and  naval  schools.  11.  Units 
of  control — preliminary  considerations.  12.  Control  of  rural 
schools.  13.  Provisions  for  supervision  of  rural  schools. 
14.  General  conditions  in  city  schools.  15.  Wide  variation  in 
character  of  schools  provided.     16.  Need  of  industrial  training. 

Chapter  VI — The  System  as  Tested  by  the 

Five  Principles  of  Chapter  V   .     .    .     .      90 

I.  Application  of  principle  one.     2.  Our  schools  as  tested  by 
principle  two,    3.  Schools  fall  short  under  principle  three. 


CONTENTS  xi 

PAGE 

|.  Need  of  a  better  economy  shown — principle  four.  5.  Why 
society  must  share  the  criticism  of  the  schools.  6.  Need  of 
economy  in  time.  7.  Application  of  principle  five.  8.  Need 
of  social  like-mindedness.  9.  Need  of  better  organization. 
10.  High  schools  should  be  free  to  all.  11.  Neglect  of  rural- 
school  needs.  12.  Where  colleges  and  universities  fall  short. 
13.  Better  classification  of  defectives  and  delinquents. 

Chapter  VII — Boards  of  Education  .  .  .  .  io6 

I.  Popular  participation  the  rule  in  our  school  organization. 
2.  Results  of  lack  of  such  participation.  3.  Logical  limita- 
tions to  centralized  control.  4.  Operation  of  this  principle  in 
case  of  boards  of  control.  5.  Manner  of  choosing  district  and 
city  boards.  6.  Term  of  service.  7.  Co-ordination  of  boards 
of  large  and  small  units.  8.  State  boards  of  education.  9. 
State  institutional  boards.  10.  Haphazard  growth  of  meth- 
ods of  control.  11.  Persistence  of  traditions.  12.  Discussion 
of  types.  Boards  of  rural  and  village  schools.  13.  County 
boards.  14.  Kentucky  plan  of  rural  organization.  15.  City 
boards.  16.  The  committee  system.  17.  Methods  of  selec- 
tion of  city  boards.  18.  Special  investigations  as  related  to 
city  boards.  19.  Make-up  of  an  ideal  city  board.  20.  The 
State  type  of  board.  21.  Function  of  State  boards  confused 
between  two  ideals.  22.  Trustees  and  regents  of  State  institu- 
tions.    23.  Application  of  principles  of  control  to  State  types. 

24.  How  to  make  State  boards  representative  in  character. 

25.  Necessity  of  independence  of  State  boards. 


Chapter  VIII — Maintenance  and  Other  Fis- 
cal Aspects  of  Public  Education     .    .     133 

I.  Evolution  of  the  idea  of  popular  support  of  schools.  2. 
Forces  favorable  and  unfavorable.  3.  Summary  of  arguments. 
4.  Need  of  more  money  for  schools.  5.  Advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of  direct  taxation.  6.  Inadequacy  and  inequali- 
ties in  support  of  schools.  7.  Important  principles  involved. 
8.  Basis  for  State  support.  9.  A  working  scheme  of  mainte- 
nance. 10.  Application  in  case  of  Federal  aid.  11.  Increasing 
demands  and  fixed  rates  of  levy.  12.  Justice  and  wisdom  in 
Federal  aid.  13.  Problem  of  compensation  of  teachers.  14. 
Reasons  for  present  inadequacy.  15.  The  question  of  arbitrary 
adjustments  of  salaries.  16.  Effect  of  salary  conditions  on 
shortage  of  teachers.     17.  Teachers'  pensions  as  a  remedy. 


xii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

i8.  Doctor  Pritchett  on  teachers'  pensions.  19,  A  second  par- 
tial remedy.  20.  The  problem  of  school  accounting.  21.  The 
St.  Louis  plan  of  accounting.  2  2 .  Need  of  publicity  in  accoimt- 
ing. 

Chapter  IX — Preparation  of  Teachers   .  .  164 

I.  Skill  and  professional  knowledge  required.  2.  Public 
policy  to  train  teachers  at  public  expense.  3.  Relative  im- 
portance of  skill  and  knowledge.  4.  Training  of  teachers  in 
high    schools.     5.  Normal    schools    typical    training-schools. 

6.  Need  and  propriety  of  Federal  aid  for  normal  schools. 

7.  The  city  training-school.  8.  Colleges  and  universities  as 
training-schools  for  teachers.  9.  The  university  school  of 
education.  10.  What  should  be  the  relation  of  the  three  typ>es 
of  training?  11.  Methods  of  co-ordinating  the  university  and 
normal  school.     12.  Training  of  teachers  in  service. 

Chapter  X — The  Selection  of  Teachers   .    .    182 

I.  Method  of  selection  of  teachers.  2.  State- wide  system 
of  selection  needed.  3.  Magnitude  of  the  teaching  service. 
4.  Urgent  need  of  better  methods  of  selection.  5.  Present 
practice  too  cumbersome.  6.  City  certification — its  weakness. 
7.  County  certification.  8.  State  certification.  9.  Lack  of 
conformity  to  any  system  among  States.  10.  Recognition  of 
institutional  training  as  a  basis  for  certification.  11.  Summary 
of  conditions  needed  for  efficiency.  12.  Specific  selection  by 
boards  and  supervisors.  13.  Importance  of  this  function  of 
boards  of  education.  14.  Expert  observation  of  work  as  a 
basis  for  selection.  15.  Methods  and  difficulties  of  large  cities. 
16.  Examples  of  methods  used  by  cities. 

Chapter  XI — Physical  Equipment  of  Schools    209 

I.  Magnitude  of  the  problem.  2.  General  conditions  to  be 
cared  for.  3.  The  elementary  building.  4.  The  intermediate 
type.  5.  City  high-school  buildings.  6.  The  small-city  or 
town  type.     7.  Special  provisions  and  equipments. 


CONTENTS  xiii 


PART  THREE 
The  Administration  of  Instruction 

/  PAGE 

Chapter  XII — Recapitulation  and  Definition    218 

I.  The  mechanism  of  administration  viewed  as  a  whole. 
2.  Conclusions  from  what  precedes.     3.  Administration  of  in-  \       / 
struction  defined.    4.  Things  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  the  discus-  ^-^-y 
sion  to  follow. 


Chapter  XIII — Supervision 225 

I.  The  educational  expert  of  the  system.  2.  What  the  posi- 
tion involves.  3.  Special  and  grade  supervision.  4.  Super- 
vision of  rural  and  village  schools.  5.  County  boards  and  bet- 
ter teachers  the  chief  needs.  6.  Supervision  of  small  cities. 
7.  Supervision  of  large-city  systems.  8.  Purposes  and  aims 
of  supervising  agencies.  9.  The  superintendent  and  the 
training  of  teachers  in  service.  10.  Function  of  supervisors  in 
the  selection  of  teachers.  11.  Things  superintendents  should 
know.  12.  State  supervision.  13.  Supervision  of  normal 
schools  needed.  14.  Supervision  of  instruction  in  a  univer- 
sity.    15.  Inter-institutional  supervision. 


Chapter  XIV — The  Inspection  of  Schools     .    249 

I.  Definitions.  2.  Recent  development  of  the  inspectorial 
fvmction  in  education.  3.  Some  interesting  variations  and 
their  causes.  4.  Types  of  inspection  developed.  5.  Work  of 
the  General  Education  Board  in  the  South.  6.  Associations  of 
colleges  and  secondary  schools.     7.  Some  conclusions. 


Chapter  XV — School  Attendance      .    .    .    .    266 

I.  Causes  affecting  attendance  at  school.  2.  Legislation 
affecting  attendance.  3.  The  question  of  free  transportation. 
4.  Free  text-book  laws.  5.  Free  tuition  in  high  schools. 
6.  Absence  from  school  as  a  factor  in  retardation  and  elim- 
ination. 7.  The  truancy  problem.  8.  Plans  for  supervision 
of  attendance. 


xiv  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter  XVI — Physical  Education  and  Health    277 

I.  The  principle  involved.  2.  Relation  of  health  to  attend- 
ance and  instruction.  3.  Health  supervision  demanded  as  re- 
sult of  neglect.  4.  Medical  inspection  the  first  need.  5,  The 
psychological  clinic  next.  6.  Medical  supervision  of  games 
and  sports  required.  7.  Emphasis  should  be  placed  on  hy- 
gienic conditions.  8.  Specially  trained  experts  needed,  g. 
Important  recommendations  of  x\merican  Medical  Association. 
10.  Legislation  providing  for  medical  inspection.  11.  The 
playground  movement.  12.  The  school  should  supervise  the 
play. 

Chapter  XVII — The  Curricula  of  the  Schools    289 

I.  Sequence  in  education.  2.  Interdependence  of  the  three 
stages  of  education.  3.  Basis  for  organization  of  educational 
institutions.  4.  Problem  of  differentiation  of  pupils'  work. 
5.  Organizing  and  adapting  schools  to  varying  needs.  6.  Con- 
ditions needed  for  rural  schools.  7.  Town  and  city  organiza- 
tion. 8.  The  problem  Ss  it  appears  in  colleges  and  universities. 
9.  Requirements  in  the  case  of  defectives.  10.  Programme  of 
the  elementary  school.  11.  Programme  of  the  high  school. 
12.  The  weakness  of  the  old  order.  13.  The  element  most 
needed  is  an  industrial  "core."  14.  Specialization  and  ad- 
justability.    15.   Knowledge    lacking  of    educational   values. 

16.  The  demand  is  for  greater  flexibility  of  the  curriculum. 

17.  The  principle  of  economy  involved. 


Chapter  XVIII — The  Teacher 313 

I.  The  teacher  should  volunteer  the  service.  2.  The  typical 
teacher  characterized.  3.  Personality  in  teaching.  4.  The 
teacher's  ethics  concerning  appointments.  5.  Professional 
attitude  of  the  teacher.  6.  The  teacher's  rights  and  priv- 
ileges. 7.  The  teacher's  duty  to  self.  8.  Preparation  which 
the  service  demands. 


Chapter  XIX — Classification  and  Promotions    326 

I.  The  problem  stated.  2.  The  theory  of  classification. 
3.  Frequent  and  careful  revision  necessary.  4.  Individual 
work  and  correct  measure  of  achievement.  5.  Correct  classi- 
fication calls  for  careful  study  of  changes  in  individuals.     6, 


CONTENTS  XV 

PAGE 

Special  care  in  case  of  abnormals.  7.  Periods  of  promotion 
as  affecting  classification.  8.  What  shall  be  the  basis  for  pro- 
motions? 9.  The  question  as  applied  to  high  schools.  10.  In 
higher  institutions.  11.  The  problem  of  transfers.  12.  Need 
of  reform  in  the  matter  of  transfers.  13.  Scientific  treatment 
will  bring  relief.     14.  University  of  Missouri  plan. 

Chapter  XX — ^Activities  and  Relations  of  the 

School 341 

I.  The  daily  programme.  2.  The  problem  of  fatigue.  3. 
Value  of  the  play  instinct.  4.  Theory  of  rest.  5.  The  lunch 
problem.  6.  The  problem  in  higher  institutions.  7.  Mean- 
ing of  recitation  and  study  periods.  8.  The  school  as  a  com- 
munity. 9.  School  savings-banks  and  school  gardens.  10. 
High-school  management  of  business  affairs.  11.  Extension 
work  of  the  school.  12.  Vacation  schools.  13.  The  all-year 
type  of  school. 

Chapter  XXI — Private  Education  and  Bene- 
factions AS  Related  to  Public  Educa- 
tion        356 

I.  Growth  of  private  compared  with  public  education. 
2.  The  problem  presented.  3.  What  should  be  the  attitude  of 
the  State?    4.  Educational  foundations. 

Chapter  XXII — The  Forward  Look  ....    362 

I.  Persistence  of  an  educational  ideal.  2.  The  problem  of 
to-day.  3.  The  great  question  of  social  conservation.  4.  The 
"feeling  of  nationality"  our  hope.  5.  The  five  essentials  to 
progress. 

References  for  Further  Reading,  by  Chapters 

AND  IN  General 372 

Index 379 


THE 

ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION  IN 

A  DEMOCRACY 

PART  ONE 

FIELD  AND  SCOPE  OF  TREATMENT 
OUTLINED 

CHAPTER  I 

PRELIMINARY  STATEMENT 

The  nineteenth  and  the  first  decade  of  the  twentieth 
centuries  have  staged  no  more  remarkable  action  in  the 
world's  drama  than  the  evolution  of  public  education. 
Sprung  from  the  philosophical  theories  of  Plato  and 
Aristotle,  this  evolution  did  not  reach  concrete  and  tan- 
gible expression  until  the  sixteenth  century  A.  D.  One 
of  the  earliest  and  most  notable  fruits  of  the  Reforma- 
tion during  this  century  was  the  impetus  given  to  the 
movement  for  popular  education.  In  the  same  century 
the  Dutch  celebrated  their  victories  over  Spain,  in  their 
remarkable  struggle  for  religious  freedom,  by  establish- 
ing both  common  schools  and  universities.  Simultane- 
ously was  laid,  in  Massachusetts,  the  foundation  and 
early  foreshadowing  of  our  own  system  of  common 
schools.  As  an  essential  part  of  the  same  general  mani- 
festation of  this  earlier  growth  came  the  schools  estab- 
lished by  the  Dutch  in  New  Amsterdam  and  the  Quakers 
in  Pennsylvania. 

1 


2  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

I.    National  Movements 

Not,  however,  until  the  Revolutionary  War  had  ce- 
mented the  American  colonies  into  a  nation  whose  earlier 
declaration  of  independence  became  a  reality  with  the 
war's  close  did  the  idea  of  free  public  education  take 
form  as  a  national  policy.  About  the  same  time  Prussia, 
awakened  by  the  losses  of  the  Napoleonic  Wars,  set  reso- 
lutely about  the  task  of  estabUshing  a  system  of  uni- 
versal education  which  later  became  the  dominant 
system  of  the  united  German  Empire  and  the  greatest 
system  of  popular  education  in  modern  Europe. 

In  a  similar  way  France  was  roused  into  action  by 
the  Franco-Prussian  War  and  set  seriously  about  the 
work  of  organizing  the  educational  forces  of  the  Repub- 
lic into  a  state  system  of  public  education.  Switzer- 
land, Italy,  and  the  Scandinavian  states  have  emulated 
Prussia,  with  varying  degrees  of  success,  until  all  these 
countries  are  now  in  line  as  representing,  with  us,  the 
democratic  idea  of  education.  Japan,  in  the  Orient, 
stands  forth  as  a  remarkable  example  of  the  transfer  of 
national  methods  in  education.  Here  a  people  of  differ- 
ent race  ideals  has  succeeded  in  adapting  much  of  the 
best  in  education  that  Western  civilization  has  produced, 
thus  giving  that  nation  a  most  complete  system  of  pub- 
lic schools  under  efficient  organization.  This  Japan  has 
done,  too,  apparently  without  sacrificing  any  essential 
features  of  her  own  national  ideals. 

2.     Motives  for  Organized  Systems  of  Education 

The  narrower  and  more  selfish  interests  of  individuals, 
clans,  or  families,  or  the  more  effective  and  general  prop- 
agation of  religious  doctrines,  were  the  earlier  motives 
for  organized  effort  in  education.     Of  these  two,  relig- 


PRELIMINARY  STATEMENT  3 

ious  interests  came  to  dominate  the  schools  on  account 
of  the  effective  organization  of  various  churches  and 
cults.  The  growth  of  cities  in  Europe,  the  revival  and 
spread  of  commerce  among  the  new  modern  nations,  the 
reorganization  of  industries  to  suit  the  demands  of  this 
wider  distribution  of  their  products,  and,  above  all,  the 
spread  of  democratic  ideals,  all  conspired  to  change  the 
motive  of  education  to  these  more  secular  interests  and 
to  transfer  the  administration  of  education  from  church 
to  state. 

3.     Steps  Leading  to  Secularization  of  Education 

At  first  education  was  administered  almost  solely  by 
the  church.  Thus  it  was  that  the  masses  came  to  look 
upon  it  as  a  secondary  religious  function  of  that  body. 
Occasionally  individual  enterprises  sprang  up  as  com- 
mercial ventures;  but  the  idea  of  a  system  of  public 
education,  administered  by  experts  especially  trained 
and  equipped  for  such  service,  has  developed  slowly  in 
most  countries.  Meantime  the  church,  especially  in  its 
original  types  and  where  it  was  definitely  established 
by  the  state,  has  contended  strenuously  for  the  reten- 
tion of  the  educational  function  as  its  prerogative. 

Against  this  attitude  of  the  religious  orders  two  forces 
have  operated  powerfully  and  are  still  operative.  In 
the  first  place,  the  Reformation  resulted  in  splitting 
organized  Christianity  into  numerous  sects  and  denomi- 
nations, thus  distributing  both  the  authority  and  the 
responsibility  of  education  among  a  large  number  of  bod- 
ies. One  very  important  and  direct  result  of  this  change 
was  to  leave  a  large  body  of  people  who  were  unattached 
to  any  Christian  sect  without  means  of  education  in  a 
form  acceptable  to  them. 

In  the  second  place,  the  growth  of  the  idea  of  democ- 


4  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

racy  has  put  a  peculiar  stress  upon  the  need  of  universal 
education.  The  development  of  modern  science  and  its 
application  to  the  industries  has  further  accentuated  the 
necessity  of  finding  some  scheme  which  will  insure  such 
universal  educational  facilities. 

Out  of  the  reaction  of  these  contending  forces  has  come 
the  present  situation  with  regard  to  the  organization 
and  administration  of  education.  As  we  may  readily 
see,  the  situation  varies  greatly  in  the  different  countries 
above  referred  to.  The  more  directly  these  have  come 
up  out  of  traditional  ecclesiastical  control,  the  more  dif- 
ficult has  it  been  to  break  away  from  this  and  to  make 
education  a  secular  function  of  the  State.  In  this  re- 
spect Japan  represents  the  extreme  of  release  from  tra- 
ditional complications.  The  British  colonial  govern- 
ments of  Canada,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand  are 
further  illustrations  of  a  weakened  influence  of  tradi- 
tion as  compared  with  the  mother  country. 

In  the  United  States,  while  we  are  still  left  with  a 
dominant  secular  control,  yet  the  pecuhar  nature  of  our 
institutions,  together  with  the  vastness  of  the  immigra- 
tion to  our  shores,  has  not  left  us  free  from  some  serious 
complications  in  this  respect.  There  can  be  no  ground 
for  doubt,  however,  as  to  the  outcome,  [^i  we  are  to 
maintain  the  free  institutions  for  which  our  fathers 
contended  we  must  maintain  a  complete  and  universal 
system  of  free  pubUc  education.  Church  schools  and 
schools  under  private  control  may  still  be  maintained, 
and  for  an  indefimte  time  to  come.  They  need  not  be 
interfered  with  so  long  as  they  are  able  to  show  results 
in  education  that  are  a  reasonably  satisfactory  equiva- 
lent of  the  secular  schools  of  the  State.  Such  a  con- 
tinuance of  these  schools,  however,  can  never  relieve  the 
State  of  its  obligation  to  support,  at  pubUc  expense, 


PRELIMINARY  STATEMENT  5 

such  a  system  of  education  as  shall  fully  meet  the  re- 
quirements for  maintaining  those  conditions  of  intelli- 
gence, skill,  and  morality  among  the  people  necessary  to 
the  perpetuation  of  our  democratic  institutions. 

The  inadequacy  of  a  system  of  schools  administered 
solely  by  the  church  stands  out  more  clearly  with  each 
advanced  step  in  the  evolution  of  democratic  societies 
with  their  ever-increasing  demands  for  technical  educa- 
tion. 

4.    Causes  of  Slow  Development  of  Popular  Education 

The  retardation  which  the  tradition  of  religious  con- 
trol of  education  has  caused  in  the  development  of  an 
efficiently  administered  educational  scheme  of  universal 
character  has  been  much  greater  than  at  first  appears. 
In  the  first  place  it  has  made  it  more  difficult  for  the 
people  at  large  to  grasp  the  significance  of  education  as 
a  public  measure  and  financed  from  the  common  trea- 
sury. So  deeply  did  the  popular  mind  become  habitu- 
ated to  the  performance,  by  the  church,  of  the  educa- 
tional function  that  many  even  yet  fail  to  appreciate 
the  need  and  the  economic  importance,  for  instance,  of 
the  supervisory  function  as  exercised  by  the  State  or 
district  in  the  management  of  schools.  The  same  state 
of  mind  has  been  a  chief  cause  for  a  similar  lethargy  in 
regard  to  the  professional  training  of  those  who  are  to 
teach  and  supervise  these  schools.  Nevertheless,  our 
schools  may  now  be  said  to  be  completely  secularized. 
To  quote  from  a  recent  study  of  this  subject:^  "To-day 
we  find  in  every  State  a  system  of  public  education  in 
which  civic  and  industrial  aims  are  dominant,  in  which 
religious  instruction  is  either  entirely  ehminated  or  else 

'  Samuel  W.  Brown,  "The  Secularization  of  American  Education," 
contributions  to  Education,  Teachers  College,  Coliunbia  University,  1912. 


6  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

reduced  to  the  barest  and  most  formal  elements,  and  the 
control  of  which  is  vested  well-nigh  exclusively  in  the 
State  or  some  subdivision  thereof.  Two  factors  have 
been  dominant  in  bringing  about  this  transformation. 
The  first  of  these  is  the  conviction  that  a  republic  can 
securely  rest  only  on  an  educated  citizenship;  the  sec- 
ond is  a  sacred  regard  by  the  State  for  the  religious 
opinion  of  the  individual  citizen." 

Another  cause  of  this  retardation  is  seen  in  the  diffi- 
culty with  which  the  full  significance  of  democracy  in 
education  is  grasped  by  the  popular  mind.  Even  yet 
there  are  many  who  think  of  schools  chiefly  as  a  means 
of  advantage  to  the  individual  or  his  family.  From  the 
point  of  view  of  the  childless  taxpayer  this  takes  form 
in  a  protest  at  having  to  help  educate  his  neighbor's 
children.  The  man  who  patronizes  only  private  schools, 
for  which  he  pays  directly,  or  the  man  who,  for  con- 
science' sake,  helps  pay  for  a  school  as  a  religious  propa- 
ganda, often  calls  the  additional  tax  for  the  support  of 
public  schools  unjust.  These  momentarily  forget  their 
share  of  interest  in  that  part  of  the  body  politic  which 
can  neither  afford  the  luxury  of  exclusiveness  which  the 
private  school  offers  nor  accept  the  doctrines  which  the 
church  would  inculcate. 

Even  if  it  were  possible  for  all  to  accept  some  of  the 
many  forms  of  religious  faith  as  a  basis  for  education, 
such  a  scheme  could  not  begin  to  compete  with  the 
State  in  the  eflficiency  of  the  schools  organized.  Many 
of  the  different  religious  denominations  are  small  and 
therefore  financially  weak.  They  could  never  hope  to 
keep  pace  with  the  stronger  organizations  in  the  support 
of  adequate  school  facilities. 

Along  with  other  things,  the  ability  to  understand  the 
greatly  increased  cost  of  education  has  developed  tar- 


PRELIMINARY  STATEMENT  7 

dily.  Gradually  much  of  the  work  of  the  home  and  of 
the  church  as  well  have  been  transferred  to  the  school. 
At  the  same  time  there  has  come  a  rapid  increase  in  the 
demand  for  educational  facilities  extending  beyond  the 
merely  elementary  stages.  Thus  it  has  gradually  come 
about  that  many  services  previously  rendered  to  society 
through  other  instrumentahties  are  now  expected  from 
the  schools  along  with  the  natural  increase  of  educational 
demands,  and  the  resulting  increase  in  the  educational 
budget  is  correspondingly  large.  These  various  services 
which  society  has  thus  laid  upon  the  schools  are  funda- 
mental to  our  industrial  growth  and  to  the  maintenance 
of  our  national  ideals,  and  hence  not  to  be  evaded  with- 
out serious  loss  to  the  nation.  But  the  massing  of  these 
and  the  consequent  largeness  of  the  direct  tax  involved 
is  something  for  which  the  popular  mind  has  not  been 
prepared.  This  situation,  together  with  the  traditional 
Anglo-Saxon  dislike  for  direct  taxation,  has  materially 
retarded  the  development  of  our  educational  ideals  as 
compared  with  our  growth  in  other  respects. 

At  the  very  beginning  of  experiments  with  popular 
education,  for  want  of  a  very  clearly  conceived  ideal  as 
to  materials  and  methods,  we  accepted  the  traditional 
school  as  it  had  evolved  under  ecclesiastical  administra- 
tion. This  fact,  together  with  long  neglect  of  the  study 
of  educational  philosophy  as  applied  to  the  needs  of 
a  democracy,  has  been  another  cause  for  retardation. 
Very  slowly,  indeed,  have  we  proceeded  in  breaking 
with  the  traditional  t)^es  which  we  thus  inherited.  Nor 
has  this  release  from  hampering  traditions  been  uniform. 
Thus  far,  in  the  rapid  development  of  our  vast  domains, 
the  movement  of  educational  progress  seems  to  have  fol- 
lowed the  westward  migration  of  succeeding  generations 
of  our  younger  population.     la  several  ways  it  is  true 


8  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

that  the  greatest  advancement  to-day  in  that  form  of 
popular  education  befitting  a  democracy  is  to  be  found  j 
on  the  Pacific  coast.  Meantime,  the  more  frequent  min- 
gling of  educational  workers  is  bringing  about  a  more 
general  diffusion  of  ideas,  methods,  and  types.  Thus 
the  East  is  giving  to  the  West  the  results  of  its  more 
highly  perfected  forms  of  education,  while  it  also  receives  i( 
from  its  Western  offspring  the  more  highly  perfected 
ideals  of  education  which  regions  untrammelled  by  tra- 
ditions have  been  able  to  develop  under  the  skilful  di- 
rection of  men  of  high  educational  attainments  drawn 
from  all  sections  of  our  country. 

5.    Conditioiis  Calculated  to  Reveal  Defects 

The  events  of  the  past  half  century  in  our  national 
development  have  been  well  calculated  to  bring  out 
rather  sharply  the  defects  of  our  pubhc  educational 
scheme  which  are  directly  traceable  to  the  conditions 
which  we  have  here  set  in  brief  review.  The  increasing 
sharpness  of  commercial  competition  among  the  great 
producing  nations;  the  extensive  travel  and  the  study 
abroad  of  many  of  our  leaders  in  educational  thought; 
the  opportunities  of  comparing  the  abiUties  of  the  dif- 
ferent competing  nations  in  the  application  of  skill  and 
of  scientific  knowledge  to  the  great  producing  industries 
which  the  numerous  international  expositions  have  af- 
forded have  had  a  remarkable  awakening  effect  on  the 
popular  estimate  of  the  value  to  a  nation  of  an  eflScient 
scheme  of  education.  Heretofore  we  have  had  no  definite 
standards  by  which  to  estimate  results.  True,  we  have 
read  the  stories  of  the  experiences  of  other  nations;  we 
have  even  looked  on  placidly  while  Japan  was  making 
preparation  for  the  adjustment  of  her  educational  forces; 
but  it  has  required  the  limelight  of  a  direct  comparison 


PRELIMINARY  STATEMENT  9 

and  a  relentless  competition  in  the  world's  marts  to  fully 
arouse  us. 

As  a  result  we  find  our  school  system  subjected  to 
searching  criticism  on  the  part  of  a  public  which  has 
remained  rather  lethargic  until  now,  and  which  even 
yet  seems  inclined  to  overlook  its  own  part  in  the  re- 
tarded growth  of  our  educational  methods  and  facilities. 
This  popular  criticism  promises  well  for  the  future.  It 
indicates  that  there  is  at  least  some  degree  of  compre- 
hension as  to  the  real  value  and  importance  of  having 
the  most  efficiently  and  economically  administered  sys- 
tem of  education  which  modern  scientific  training  can 
evolve.  This  means,  again,  that,  although  the  educa- 
tional budget  must  ever  increase,  yet  people  will  no 
longer  haggle  over  the  cost  of  an  undertaking  from  which 
society  is  able  to  realize  so  much  both  in  increased 
wealth  and  in  security,  public  and  private. 

6.    Basis  and  Method  of  This  Discussion 

The  time,  therefore,  seems  opportune  for  the  discussion 
of  the  various  problems  of  educational  administration 
in  the  Hght  of  present  conditions,  social  and  economic, 
and  in  harmony  with  such  principles  of  psychology,  ped- 
agogy, and  sociology  as  are  now  clearly  estabhshed. 
Much  stress  has  thus  far  been  laid  upon  school  manage- 
ment, with  almost  exclusive  reference  to  the  direction 
of  the  instructional  work  of  the  school.  It  is  believed 
that  there  is  need  of  a  more  systematic  discussion  of  all 
the  related  aspects  of  school  administration  in  order 
that  the  bearing  of  each  phase  of  it  upon  the  others  may 
be  the  more  fully  appreciated. 

The  subject  of  public  education  is  a  broad  one — too 
broad  to  admit  of  comprehensive  treatment  in  a  single 
volume.     It  is  proposed  in  this  present  effort  to  confine 


10  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

the  work  to  a  discussion  of  the  school  as  that  particular 
instrument  which  society  has  set  up  for  training  the 
young  to  efficiency  in  service  and  to  the  abihty  to  start 
as  nearly  abreast  of  the  time  in  which  they  live  as  is 
possible  through  any  such  conventional  practice.  In 
this  treatment  all  types  of  school  education  necessary 
to  the  operation  of  a  State  system  in  a  democracy  will 
come  under  review,  together  with  such  accessory  fea- 
tures of  education  as  may  be  clearly  needed  in  order  to 
give  full  setting  to  the  situation. 

The  establishment  of  a  school  in  any  form  involves 
the  idea  of  the  organization  of  materials  and  forces  into 
an  environment  created  especially  for  the  purpose  of 
setting  up  those  reactions  in  the  young  which  are  found 
to  be  necessary  in  order  to  accomplish  the  purposes  of 
education  as  just  stated.  The  materials  of  education 
are  to  be  provided  and  directive  intelligence  in  their 
application  and  use  must  be  supplied. 

Society  itself  must  determine  what  schools  are  to  be 
provided;  what  materials  are  to  be  used;  what  teachers 
and  supervisors  shall  be  employed  and  on  what  condi- 
tions. On  the  other  hand,  there  must  be  expert  direc- 
tion in  securing  those  adjustments  among  teachers,  ma- 
terials, and  pupils  necessary  to  the  accomplishment  of 
the  immediate  ends  of  education.  These  two  fimda- 
mental  aspects  of  school  work  give  us  the  two  leading 
departments  of  administrative  effort.  The  j&rst  of  these 
is  usually  set  forth  in  laws  the  execution  of  which  is 
vested  in  various  State  and  local  officials  including 
boards  of  education.  The  second  is  delegated,  at  the 
discretion  of  educational  boards,  to  such  teachers  and 
supervisors  as  may  be  selected  and  employed  by  them 
under  the  laws  creating  and  defining  the  schools  to  be 
established. 


PRELIMINARY  STATEMENT  11 

Under  the  first  it  is  proposed  to  discuss  especially  the 
establishment,  equipment,  and  maintenance  of  schools 
and  the  training,  selection,  employment,  and  compensa- 
tion of  teachers.  Under  the  second  will  be  considered 
the  administration  of  instruction  in  its  various  phases. 
In  both  cases  the  purpose  will  be  to  get  at  underlying 
principles  rather  than  to  give  a  descriptive  treatment, 
and  to  rely,  as  far  as  possible,  on  what  is  at  present 
known  of  the  character  of  education  needed  in  a  de- 
mocracy and  the  methods  of  attaining  it. 


CHAPTER  II 
NATIONAL  IDEALS  AND  STANDARDS 

The  dominant  motive  for  American  colonization  is 
found  in  that  general  revolt  against  corrupt  ecclesiasti- 
cism  known  in  history  as  the  Reformation.  Closely  fol- 
lowing this  denunciation  of  reHgious  corruption  came  a 
call  for  the  better  education  of  all  the  people.  The 
later  declaration  of  poHtical  freedom  by  the  American 
colonists  was  the  natural  corollary  to  the  initial  motive 
for  revolt.  This  applies  especially  to  colonization  in 
New  England, ,  New  Amsterdam,  and  Pennsylvania. 
Thus  it  was  inevitable  that,  from  the  first,  a  free  gov- 
ernment and  a  system  of  universal  education  were 
evolved  side  by  side  and  as  complements  each  of  the 
other. 

I.     Massachusetts  Leads  in  Setting  Up  Ideals 

While  all  of  the  above-named  colonies  shared  in  this 
evolution,  yet  matters  moved  more  rapidly  in  Massachu- 
setts than  in  the  other  colonies.  As  a  result  there  were 
early  established  here  some  of  the  most  fundamental 
principles  since  embodied  in  the  educational  system  of 
this  country.  Among  these  principles,  and  first  ex- 
pressed in  the  laws  of  1642  and  1647  making  provision 
for  education  in  Massachusetts,  are  the  following:^ 

"The  universal  education  of  youth  is  essential  to  the 

^See  Martin,  "Evolution  of  the  Massachusetts  Public  School  Sys- 
tem," pp.  14,  15. 

12 


NATIONAL  IDEALS  AND   STANDARDS  13 

well-being  of  the  State;  the  obligation  to  furnish  this 
education  rests  primarily  upon  the  parent;  the  State 
has  the  right  to  enforce  this  obhgation;  the  State  may 
fix  a  standard  which  shall  determine  the  kind  of  educa- 
tion and  the  minimum  amount;  a  general  tax  may  be 
levied,  although  school  attendance  is  not  general,  to  be 
used  in  providing  such  education  as  the  State  requires; 
education  higher  than  the  rudiments  may  be  supplied 
by  the  State,  and  opportunity  must  be  provided  at  pub- 
lic expense  for  youths  who  wish  to  be  fitted  for  the 
university."  Thus  early  were  formulated  the  essential 
features  of  a  free  common-school  system  such  as  has 
since  been  estabUshed  in  each  State  of  our  larger  Union. 

The  principles  here  enunciated  are  comprehensive 
enough,  when  broadly  interpreted,  to  serve  as  a  founda- 
tion for  the  organization  and  establishment  of  a  com- 
plete system  of  education;  but,  owing  to  the  influence 
of  tradition,  the  unfolding  of  such  a  system  has  been 
very  slow  and  even  yet  is  found  to  be  incomplete  in 
some  important  features. 

2.     Educational  Ideals  of  Early  Statesmen 

From  the  very  beginning  of  the  nation  the  leaders  of 
public  thought  and  action  have  cherished  high  ideals  as 
to  the  intelligence  demanded  of  a  self-governing  people; 
but  the  people  in  whose  hands  has  been  the  development 
of  our  educational  system  have  manifested  a  conserva- 
tism that  is  little  in  keeping  with  their  enthusiasm  for 
free  institutions.  Among  the  framers  of  our  govern- 
ment were  a  number  of  men  who  had  caught  clear 
visions  of  the  future  republic  and  the  stress  and  strain 
that  would  come  to  it  with  its  growth;  but  the  major- 
ity seemed  to  respond  but  feebly  to  their  appeals  for 
some  action  in  regard  to  education.     Often,  indeed,  the 


14  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

attitude  was  that  of  pure  indifference.  Washington 
talked  and  wrote  tirelessly  in  his  advocacy  of  a  national 
university  which  should  set  up  standards  in  learning 
and  research  and,  by  bringing  together  men  from  all 
parts  of  the  nation,  help  to  break  down  or  prevent  the 
growth  of  sectionalism. 

No  less  persistent  and  more  effective  were  Jefferson's 
ideals  in  regard  to  a  complete  system  of  public  educa- 
tion under  local  control  and  supported  by  voluntary 
local  taxation. 

In  New  York  Alexander  Hamilton  left  an  indelible 
record  of  his  peculiar  ideas  of  nationaUsm  upon  the 
educational  system  of  that  State  when  he  secured  the 
enactment  by  the  legislature  of  his  measure  for  the  es- 
tabhshment  of  the  Regency  of  the  University  of  New 
York.i 

3.    Federal  Policy  Concerning  Education 

None  of  these  conceptions  of  educational  organization 
found  expression  in  the  national  Constitution.  After 
some  discussion  of  the  proposition  to  estabUsh  a  national 
university  even  that  matter  was  left  for  later  sessions 
of  the  national  Congress  to  wrestle  with.  The  entire 
organization  and  management  of  pubhc  schools,  which 
all  agreed  were  fundamental  to  the  estabUshment  of  a 
government  based  upon  the  franchise  of  its  citizens,  was, 
by  common  consent,  left  in  the  hands  of  the  States. 

Another  glimpse  of  the  trend  of  thought  in  regard  to 
education  comes  to  us  in  connection  with  the  enactment 
of  the  Ordinance  of  1787,  and  its  renewal  under  the 
Constitution  of  1789.  The  granting  of  one  section  of 
land  out  of  each  township  under  the  Congressional  sur- 

^  "Works  of  Alexander  Hamilton,"  edited  by  John  C.  Hamilton,  edi- 
tion of  1850,  vol.  II,  pp.  341^. 


NATIONAL  IDEALS  AND   STANDARDS  15 

vey  as  an  endowment  to  education  in  the  States,  with 
the  later  addition  of  a  second  section,  served  as  a  con- 
crete and  tangible  expression  of  the  sentiment  handed 
down  in  the  language  of  the  Ordinance. 

The  fact  that  the  management  of  these  land  gifts  and 
their  proceeds  was  left  to  the  States  placed  further  em- 
phasis upon  the  policy  of  non-interference  by  the  Federal 
Government  in  the  domain  of  public  education.  A  little 
supervisory  control  by  the  central  government  might 
have  made  possible  the  saving  of  millions  to  the  distrib- 
utable funds  of  the  States.  But  the  decentralizing  in- 
fluences growing  out  of  the  revolutionary  movements 
of  Europe  at  that  time  seem  to  have  rendered  such  a 
procedure  impossible  if  not  unthought  of. 

4.     State  Systems  and  the  Training  of  Teachers 

Very  early  in  the  development  of  State  systems,  es- 
pecially in  the  older  States,  it  became  evident  that  some 
special  provision  must  be  made  for  the  training  of 
teachers  in  a  professional  way.  This  naturally  met  with 
the  opposition  of  those  interested  in  colleges  where 
classical  and  reUgious  training  predominated,  and  of  all 
those  who  still  thought  of  education  as  a  function  of 
the  church  rather  than  of  the  state.  Indeed,  it  appears 
that  these  same  classes  were  for  a  long  time  opposed  to 
public  education  in  general.^  Various  sporadic  attempts 
at  providing  for  the  professional  training  of  teachers  were 
made  by  private  institutions  very  early  in  the  nineteenth 
century.  But  not  until  1839  were  the  first  normal  schools 
really  established  in  Massachusetts.  Similar  schools 
were  begun  in  New  York  in  1844,  Connecticut  in  1852, 
Rhode  Island  in  1854,  and  Pennsylvania  in  1855.     Thus 

^  See  Martin,  "  Evolution  of  Mcissachusetts  Public  School  System," 
chap.  IV. 


16  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

by  the  end  of  the  first  half  century  of  progress  in  our 
educational  system  this  important  feature  of  the  work, 
already  firmly  established  in  Prussia,  was  generally  recog- 
nized by  the  States. 

5.    Federal  Land  Grants 

The  most  remarkable  manifestation  of  national  ideals 
in  education  as  expressed  by  the  Federal  Government  had 
its  rise  in  the  Central  West  at  about  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  movement  began  with  the  or- 
ganization of  an  Industrial  League  in  185 1  at  Granville, 
III.^  Through  the  influence  of  this  League  the  General 
Assembly  of  that  State,  in  February,  1853,  memorialized 
Congress  with  regard  to  the  enactment  of  a  law  "donat- 
ing to  each  State  in  the  Union  an  amount  of  public  lands 
not  less  in  value  than  five  himdred  thousand  dollars  for 
the  Uberal  endowment  of  a  system  of  industrial  imiver- 
sities  ...  for  the  more  Uberal  and  practical  education  of 
our  industrial  classes  and  their  teachers."  Professor 
J.  B.  Turner,  chief  director  of  the  Lidustrial  League, 
first  outlined  the  general  plan  of  these  institutions. 
Through  the  activity  of  the  League  a  bill  was  introduced 
in  Congress,  in  1857,  which  embodied  the  proposed  en- 
dowment. The  bill  passed,  but  was  vetoed  by  Pres- 
ident Buchanan.  It  was  known  as  the  Morrill  Act, 
and  was  finally  passed  and  approved  by  President  Lin- 
coln, July  2,  1862.  The  bill  as  passed  was  different 
from  the  first  proposal  in  that  it  provided  for  the  grant- 
ing of  land  to  the  amount  of  thirty  thousand  acres  for 
each  representative  and  senator  to  which  any  State  was 
entitled  in  Congress.  Subsequent  grants,  as  that  in 
1887  for  founding  experiment  stations  in  agriculture,  the 

*  Edmund  J.  James,  "Origin  of  the  Land  Grant  Act  of  1862,"  Uni- 
versity Studies,  vol.  4,  no.  i,  University  of  Illinois. 


NATIONAL  IDEALS  AND  STANDARDS  17 

second  Morrill  Act  of  1890,  the  Nelson  amendment 
which  followed,  and  the  Adams  Act  of  1906,  greatly  in- 
creasing the  funds  for  experiment  station  work,  carry 
the  same  general  significance  with  respect  to  the  na- 
tional policy  regarding  education  as  did  the  original 
act  of  1862. 

6.    Bureau  of  Education  Established 

Again  the  Federal  Government  gave  expression  to  a 
recognized  need  of  a  national  supervisory  function  with 
regard  to  education  by  establishing,  in  1867,  under  the 
Department  of  State,  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation and  appointing  a  commissioner  to  attend  to  the 
duties  prescribed.  No  directive  authority  over  the 
schools  was  vested  in  this  office,  but  the  commissioner 
was  authorized  to  collect  and  compile  statistics  and  to 
furnish  such  other  information  of  a  national  and  inter- 
national character  as  should  be  deemed  serviceable  to 
the  educational  interests  of  the  country. 

7.     Slowness  of  Acceptance  by  the  Masses 

While  we  have  these  evidences  of  a  national  feeling 
for  the  free  education  of  the  masses,  yet  the  masses 
seem  to  have  been  very  slow  in  acquiring  ideals  of  edu- 
cation sufficiently  strong  to  keep  up  the  standards  re- 
quired under  our  manner  of  government.  Fortxmate, 
indeed,  was  it  for  this  country  that  many  of  the  colonies 
developed  so  early  a  scheme  for  carrying  on  free  public 
schools.  Without  the  leadership  of  such  a  State  as 
Massachusetts,  it  is  impossible  to  say  what  might  long 
since  have  become  of  our  experiment  in  democracy.  As 
it  was,  Massachusetts,  even,  suffered  a  relapse  which  re- 
quired a  great  educational  revival  to  overcome.  In  1824 
we  find  James  G.  Carter  stating  the  situation  thus:  "If 


18/  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

the  policy  of  the  Legislature  in  regard  to  free  schools  for 
the  last  twenty  years  be  not  changed,  the  institution 
which  has  been  the  glory  of  New  England  will,  in  twenty 
years  more,  be  extinct."  ^  It  is  a  long,  hard  road  to  that  ^\^ 
enUghtenment  of  a  people  necessary  to  the  exercise  of/ 
sovereign  power  in  a  free  country.  Perhaps  no  one  has 
expressed  this  problem  more  clearly  than  has  Horace 
Mann,  called,  as  he  was,  to  lead  in  the  great  revival. 
These  are  his  words:  ^  "The  education  of  the  whole  peo- 
ple, in  a  repubUcan  government,  can  never  be  attained 
without  the  consent  of  the  whole  people.  Compulsion, 
even  if  it  were  desirable,  is  not  an  available  instrument. 
Enlightenment,  not  coercion,  is  our  resource.  The  na- 
ture of  education  must  be  explained.  The  whole  mass 
of  mind  must  be  instructed  in  regard  to  its  comprehen- 
sion and  enduring  interests.  We  cannot  drive  our  people 
up  a  dark  avenue  even  though  it  be  the  right  one; 
but  must  hang  the  starry  lights  of  knowledge  about 
it,  and  show  them  not  only  the  directness  of  the  course 
to  the  goal  of  prosperity  and  honor  but  the  beauty  of  the 
way  that  leads  to  it." 

Out  of  such  a  campaign  of  enlightenment,  wisely  begun 
by  those  who  preceded,  and  pushed  with  enthusiasm, 
tact,  and  patient  endurance  by  Mann  and  his  coworkers, 
came  the  rehabiUtation  of  the  public  schools  of  Massa- 
chusetts, the  establishment  of  normal  schools,  and  the 
complete  and  final  commitment  of  the  people  of  that 
State  to  a  broad  and  efficient  system  of  public  educa- 
tion. And  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  lights  thus 
kindled  and  kept  burning  have  multiplied  themselves 

>In  an  address  entitled  "The  Schools  of  Massachusetts  in  1824," 
Old  South  Leaflets,  no.  134. 

'See  "Life  and  Works  of  Horace  Mann,  Lectures  and  Reports,"  II, 
p.  286.    Lee  and  Shepard,  Boston,  1891. 


NATIONAL  IDEALS   AND   STANDARDS  19 

again  and  again  as  the  need  has  come  out  of  the  rapid 
upbuilding  of  that  larger  nation  which  has  spread  be- 
yond the  Appalachians,  even  to  the  western  slopes  of 
the  Rockies  and  the  Sierras. 

8.     National  Standards  Set 

It  is  a  remarkable  situation  which  is  presented  when 
we  contemplate  the  nation's  attitude  toward  higher 
education  and  toward  the  general  supervision  of  cer- 
tain aspects  of  our  educational  development  which  are 
clearly  national  in  scope.  With  Washington's  idea  of 
a  national  university  reahzed,  what  mighty  power  it 
must  have  exerted  in  unifying  and  giving  clear  outline 
to  our  educational  aims  and  purposes,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  advantages  which  must  have  been  derived  from  the 
scientific  research  which  such  an  institution  would  have 
fostered  and  developed! 

Not  less  disappointing,  as  we  look  for  the  nation's 
comprehension  of  the  task  it  had  assumed,  is  the  slight- 
ing way  in  which  the  whole  matter  of  a  national  admin- 
istrative function  in  education  has  been  treated.  War, 
the  navy,  all  other  great  public  affairs  have  found  a 
ready  recognition  among  the  interests  of  the  National 
Government.  Educational  institutions  for  the  training 
of  fighters  have  been  provided;  but  when  it  comes  to 
the  great  arts  of  peace  and  to  that  particular  institution 
upon  which,  more  than  all  else,  the  nation's  welfare 
and  security  must  depend,  the  Congress  has  remained 
strangely  silent  and  conservative. 

In  the  provision  made  for  industrial  education  we  see 
a  clearer  vision  and  a  higher  purpose.  In  land  grants 
and  appropriations  for  higher  institutions  devoted  to 
training  and  research  in  the  great,  fundamental  indus- 
tries, the  government  authorities  have  fixed  a  purpose 


20  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

and  standard  for  education  in  the  States  the  beneficent 
force  of  which  will  appear  more  and  more  as  the  years 
pass. 

Wherever  the  Federal  Government  has  midertaken 
educational  work  it  has  usually  been  of  a  high  order. 
In  military  training  this  is  especially  noticeable.  The 
men  trained  at  West  Point  and  Annapolis  have  usually 
proven  themselves  to  be  well  trained  not  alone  in  the 
arts  of  war,  but  in  some  of  the  arts  of  peace  as  well. 
This  seems  especially  true  of  those  trained  in  engineer- 
ing. In  these  schools  the  government  has  thus  set  up 
standards  of  efficiency  in  service  that  have  had  a  marked 
influence  upon  the  country's  ideals.  So  likewise  the 
standards  set  by  the  various  branches  of  the  civil  ser- 
vice, as  determined  by  the  examinations,  have  had  a  cer- 
tain influence  in  determining  standards  in  education. 

But  the  real  ideals  and  standards  which  the  nation 
holds  have  unfolded  gradually  as  our  conception  of  de- 
mocracy has  been  slowly  evolving  through  the  experiences 
of  years.  For  they  are  coming  to  us,  as  Horace  Mann 
said,  not  by  coercion  but  by  enlightenment.  After  all, 
it  is  our  ideal  of  democracy  that  must  determine  our 
educational  ideals.  How  httle  the  relation  between 
the  two  was  comprehended  at  first  is  plainly  shown  by 
the  experience  of  Massachusetts.  In  this  respect  history 
is  ever  repeating  itself.  If  we  were  to  undertake  to-day 
to  measure  the  duration  of  our  institutions  in  the  light 
of  the  prevalent  popular  conception  of  the  kind  of  gen- 
eral intelligence  necessary  to  efficient  citizenship,  it  is 
doubtful  if  we  should  give  as  much  time  for  their  endur- 
ance as  did  James  G.  Carter,  in  1824,  to  the  free-school 
system  of  New  England.  But  now,  even  as  then,  there 
are  educational  evangelists  abroad,  speaking,  writing, 
working  tirelessly  for  that  final  day  when  all  shall  con- 


NATIONAL  IDEALS   AND   STANDARDS  21 

cede  the  needs  of  popular  education  to  the  utmost  of 
society's  ability  to  provide. 

9.     Evidences  of  Advancement 

Meanwhile,  we  have  tried  and  doubtless  are  still  to 
try  many  wasteful  and  costly  experiments  in  our  efforts 
to  secure  a  reasonably  complete,  sane,  and  efl&cient  ad- 
ministration of  this  very  important  branch  of  service 
which  society  undertakes  to  render  itself  through  co- 
operation. "No  deeper  conviction,"  says  President 
Butler,^  "pervades  the  people  of  the  United  States  than 
that  the  preservation  of  liberty  under  the  law,  and  of 
the  institutions  that  are  our  precious  possession  and 
proud  heritage,  depends  upon  the  intelligence  of  the 
whole  people."  If  this  is  true,  then,  no  matter  how  often 
we  may  fail  in  our  experiments,  ultimately  we  shall  find 
a  way  to  insure  this  intelhgence. 

Recent  years  have  witnessed  a  rapid  change  in  the 
mental  attitude  of  the  nation  in  regard  to  education. 
In  the  first  place,  we  have  had  opportunity  to  study 
more  carefully  the  cases  of  Prussia  and  France  and  to 
understand  what  actuated  them  in  the  establishment  of 
national  educational  systems.  The  development  of  our 
own  national  life;  the  growth  of  our  population,  bring- 
ing with  it  new  problems  as  to  citizenship,  as  to  indus- 
tries, and  as  to  social  relations  and  international  inter- 
ests; the  consequent  widening  of  our  responsibilities — 
all  these  things  have  added  materially  to  our  realization 
of  the  vital  relation  which  education  bears  to  our  exis- 
tence and  the  perpetuation  of  our  national  ideals  and 
institutions. 

Then  there  has  come  about  such  a  social  change,  due 

*  In  "  The  Meaning  of  Education,"  pp.  108-109.  New  York.  Mac- 
millan,  1898. 


22  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

to  the  division  of  labor  and  more  extensive  organization 
in  production,  as  to  make  it  necessary  greatly  to  increase 
the  work  of  the  schools  in  order  to  replace  much  that 
can  no  longer  be  intrusted  to  the  family  or  to  other 
educational  influences  of  the  social  group. 

As  a  result  our  conception  of  the  function  of  public 
education  has  been  greatly  enlarged.  We  no  longer 
think  of  the  school  as  a  place  merely  for  acquiring  the 
rudiments  of  learning,  the  arts  of  the  school  itself.  The 
content  of  learning  has  been  greatly  increased.  At  the 
same  time  the  necessity  for  industrial  training  to  take 
the  place  of  an  obsolescent  apprentice  system  has  come 
to  be  quite  generally  recognized  especially  among  social 
and  industrial  leaders.  Along  with  this  also  comes  a 
stressing  of  the  demand  for  a  different  kind  of  moral 
training  than  that  which  has  heretofore  been  thought 
of  as  a  function  of  the  school. 

The  present  outlook,  then,  as  seen  in  the  expression 
of  our  leaders  in  educational  thought,  calls  for  a  system 
of  education  that  shall  embody  a  harmonious  and  related 
blending  of  intellectual,  moral,  and  industrial  training 
of  all  children  and  youth  to  the  end  that  each  may  live 
eflSciently,  possessed  of  that  civic  and  industrial  intelli- 
gence, that  skill  to  do  a  needed  service,  and  that  high 
moral  sense  which  the  nature  of  our  existence  as  a  de- 
mocracy is  now  seen  to  demand. 

To  quote  again  from  President  Butler:^  "But  I  am 
profoundly  convinced  that  the  greatest  educational  need 
of  our  time,  in  higher  and  lower  schools  alike,  is  a  fuller 
appreciation  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  of  what  human 
institutions  really  mean  and  what  tremendous  moral  is- 
sues and  principles  they  involve.  The  ethics  of  individ- 
ual life  must  be  traced  to  its  roots  in  the  ethics  of  the 

^OP.  CU.,  p.   121. 


NATIONAL  IDEALS  AND   STANDARDS  23 

social  whole.  The  family,  property,  the  common  law, 
the  state,  and  the  church  are  all  involved.  These  and 
their  products,  taken  together,  constitute  civilization 
and  mark  it  off  from  barbarism.  Inheritor  of  a  glorious 
past,  each  generation  is  a  trustee  for  posterity.  To  pre- 
serve, protect,  and  transmit  its  inheritance  unimpaired 
is  its  highest  duty.  To  accomplish  this  is  not  the  task 
of  the  few  but  the  duty  of  all." 


CHAPTER  III 
EVOLUTION  OF  FREE  COMMON  SCHOOLS 

The  ferment  of  ideas  and  forces  in  mediaeval  Europe 
produced  the  seed  germs  of  our  common-school  system. 
There  came  out  of  that  strange  mingling  of  ancient  civ- 
ilization with  the  Christianized  barbarism  of  northern 
Europe,  touched,'  in  turn,  by  the  life  and  learning  of  the 
East,  a  wonderful  revival  of  trade  and  industries.  This 
new  hfe  was  destined  soon  to  grow  to  greater  propor- 
tions than  the  world  of  commerce  and  industry  had  yet 
seen.  Centres  of  population  teeming  with  the  new  ac- 
tivity developed  rapidly.  Out  of  this  growth  of  cities 
new  problems  arose  calling  for  a  new  education  which 
the  monastic  schools  could  not  offer. 

I.     Early  Types 

This  condition  of  things  gave  rise  to  the  burgh  or  city 
grammar-schools  under  the  care  of  municipalities.  The 
appearance  of  these  schools,  differentiated  from  the 
schools  of  the  church  to  meet  new  social  demands, 
doubtless  marks  the  beginning  of  the  modem  secular 
free  school.^  The  opening  of  writing  and  "reckoning" 
schools  as  private  enterprises  in  the  interests  of  the 
training  demanded  for  business  became  a  factor  also  in 
the  development  of  these  schools  of  the  people.  It  re- 
mained only  for  the  powerful  influence  of  the  Reformation 
to  weld  these  all  into  a  scheme  of  secular  education  for  the 

1  See  "A  Study  of  Mediaeval  Schools  and  School  Work,"  L.  F.  Ander- 
son, Pedagogical  Seminary,  vol.  XTV,  pp.  223-82. 

24 


EVOLUTION  OF  FREE  COMMON  SCHOOLS   25 

masses  which  was  the  forerunner  of  the  American  com- 
mon-school system  and  of  all  European  systems  as  well. 

2.     Beginnings  in  Germany 

The  influence  of  Luther  and  his  associates  soon  pro- 
duced a  marked  effect  on  the  educational  interests  of  the 
continent.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century 
beginnings  were  made  in  Prussia^  for  the  organization 
of  popular  education  under  the  supervision  of  the  church. 
It  remained  for  Frederick  the  Great,  two  centuries  later, 
to  clearly  state  the  principles  by  which  public  instruc- 
tion should  be  administered.  A  little  later,  or  about 
1 794,  the  Prussian  code  of  laws  (Landrecht)  was  adopted, 
in  which  the  schools  received  complete  recognition.  The 
severe  trials  and  losses  of  the  Napoleonic  Wars  stirred 
Prussia  and  indeed  all  Germany  to  a  keen  reahzation 
of  the  educational  needs  of  the  people.  In  1807  Ferdi- 
nand William  III  gave  utterance  to  the  famous  words: 
"The  state  must  regain  in  mental  force  what  it  has  lost 
in  physical  force."  This  utterance  has  since  been  the 
guiding  principle  not  only  of  Prussia  but  of  the  whole 
German  Empire.  It  was  then  that  the  state  assumed 
full  control  of  the  educational  system  under  a  "Minister 
of  Worship  and  Public  Instruction."  And  in  1850  Prus- 
sia was  able  to  write  into  her  new  constitution:  "Science 
and  the  teaching  of  science  are  free." 

3.     Beginnings  in  the  Netherlands 

It  is  interesting  to  note  further  how  general  and  simul- 
taneous was  the  movement  for  the  establishment  of  pub- 
lic schools  in  Europe.     As  early  as  the  twelfth  century 

^  For  account  of  Prussian  schools,  cf.  L.  R.  Klemm,  U.  S.  Com.  Report, 
1889-90,  vol.  I,  pp.  455-64;  also  U.  S.  Com.  Report,  1867-8  (Barnard), 
PP-  435-522. 


26  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

the  stronger  communities,  chiefly  the  cities,  of  Holland 
and  Belgium  estabUshed  schools  for  the  common  people.* 
These  were  exclusive  of  the  various  church  schools.  In 
the  case  of  Holland  the  instruction  in  these  schools  was 
taken  from  the  supervision  of  the  clergy  and  thus  became 
essentially  secular. 

Universities  and  Latin  schools  were  also  estabhshed 
as  early  as  the  sixteenth  century.  Like  the  United 
States,  the  Netherlands,  by  the  terms  of  their  constitu- 
tion, grant  entire  liberty  of  conscience  to  all  religious 
denominations.  In  all  their  legislation  concerning  pri- 
mary instruction  the  Dutch  have  been  opposed  to  de- 
nominational schools.  Their  government  was  the  first 
of  European  countries,  in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  to  promulgate  laws  for  the  establishment  of 
state  schools,  viz.,  in  1801,  1803,  and  1806. 

4.     Denmark 

As  early  as  1721  a  royal  decree  was  issued  by  Fred- 
eric IV  of  Denmark^  regulating  the  organization  of  peo- 
ples' schools.  The  Reformation  period  produced  the 
Latin  schools  characteristic  of  western  Europe.  Normal 
schools  were  first  established  near  the  close  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  In  1814  two  decrees  were  issued  which 
more  completely  organized  the  common-school  system, 
including  the  country  as  well  as  the  cities.  These  de- 
crees form  the  basis  for  the  present  system  of  education 
in  Denmark.  The  head  of  the  system  is  the  University 
of  Copenhagen,  which  exercises  a  powerful  control  over 
all  educational  institutions.  Religion  is  a  dominant 
element  in  the  instruction  of  all  the  schools. 

1  Cf.  Miss  Sophie  Nussbaum,  in  U.  S.  Com.  of  Ed.  Report,  1894-5, 
vol.  I,  pp.  475-542. 
*C/.  F.  G.  French,  U.  S.  Com.  Report,  1889-90,  vol.  I,  pp.  519-547- 


EVOLUTION  OF  FREE  COMMON  SCHOOLS      27 

5.  Norway 

In  Norway  the  first  great  impetus  to  popular  educa- 
tion came  through  the  Reformation  as  early  as  1536;  but 
this  did  not  result  in  the  immediate  establishment  of  a 
system  of  schools.  The  present  school  system  is  based 
on  a  decree  issued  in  1736.  Religious  instruction  was 
the  chief  purpose  under  this  decree.  A  more  compre- 
hensive law  for  educational  purposes  was  that  of  1827, 
which  has  since  been  greatly  modified  and  extended, 
especially  by  the  law  of  1889. 

6.  Austria 

In  Austria^  the  movement  for  public  education  began 
about  1774,  under  Maria  Theresa.  But  it  was  not  until 
1848  that  much  of  an  effective  nature  could  be  accom- 
plished. Other  enactments  followed  in  1861  which 
greatly  affected  the  development  of  the  schools.  In 
1868  measures  were  adopted  which  freed  all  instruction 
except  that  of  religion  from  the  control  of  the  church, 
and  in  1869  the  law  defining  the  course  of  study  was 
passed.  This  became  the  basis  for  a  rapid  development 
of  common  schools  in  Austria. 

7.     Scotland  and  England 

It  was  probably  Scotland  ^  that  produced  the  first 
compulsory  school  law  in  Europe.  This  was  as  early 
as  1494,  under  the  reign  of  James  IV.  The  law  had 
reference  to  the  grammar-schools  and  universities,  both 
of  which  had  previously  been  established.  The  effect 
of  the  Reformation  was  strong  from  the  very  beginning. 
In  1542  the  Parliament  granted  the  privilege  of  having 

1  Cf.  Klemm,  U.  S.  Com.  Report,  1889-go,  vol.  I,  pp.  419-454. 

*  Cf.  A.  T.  Smith,  in  U.  S,  Com.  Report,  1889-90,  vol.  I,  pp.  187-235. 


28  ADMINISTRATION   OF  EDUCATION 

the  Scriptures  translated  into  the  vernacular  for  the  use 
of  all  the  people. 

Under  the  leadership  of  John  Knox  education  became 
a  fundamental  principle  of  government.  The  acts  of 
1633  and  1696  gave  a  very  complete  system  of  public 
schools  under  control  of  the  church.  In  1861  and  1872 
acts  were  passed  which  gave  to  Scotland  a  civil  rather 
than  an  ecclesiastical  system  of  schools.  The  develop- 
ment of  popular  education  in  Scotland  became  the  basis 
at  once  for  the  inspiration  and  emulation  of  England  in 
her  efforts  toward  public  education.  In  1870  the  latter 
country  succeeded  in  giving  legal  form  to  a  system 
of  common  elementary  schools.  The  Scotch  system, 
on  the  other  hand,  included,  also,  secondary  schools, 
normal  schools,  and  universities.  By  reason,  chiefly, 
of  the  peculiar  relationship  of  church  and  state  England 
has  moved  but  slowly  in  the  process  of  adapting  her 
schools  to  the  needs  of  such  a  great  democratic  people. 
Nevertheless,  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  whenever 
there  has  been  an  extension  of  the  suffrage,  as  in  the 
thirties  and  again  in  the  seventies  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  ParHament  has  always  sought  to  make  a  cor- 
respondingly Hberal  provision  for  public  education. 

8.    France 

The  French  *  system  of  public  instruction  owes  its 
existence  directly  to  the  influence  of  the  Revolution  and 
Napoleon,  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  disasters  of  the 
Franco-Prussian  War  on  the  other.  The  establishment 
of  the  Imperial  University  in  1808  was  the  first  impor- 
tant step.  By  this  means  secondary  and  higher  educa- 
tion were  organized  throughout  the  communes.  It  was 
Guizot's  law  of  1833,  however,  which  was  essentially 

^  C/.  A.  T.  Smith,  in  U.  S.  Com.  Report,  1890-1,  vol.  I,  pp.  100-120. 


EVOLUTION  OF  FREE   COMMON   SCHOOLS      2^ 

the  first  charter  of  primary  education  in  France.  From 
1872,  under  the  ministry  of  M.  Ferry,  until  the  present 
time  popular  education  of  a  secular  character  has  made 
most  rapid  progress  in  that  country. 

9.  Simultaneous  Development  of  Public  Education  ^^v 

Thus  out  of  those  combined  forces  which  gave  to  Eu- 
rope the  Renaissance  there  grew,  with  the  progress  of 
enlightenment  and  of  commerce,  a  system  of  universal 
education  among  the  nations  of  the  Western  world.  The 
seeds  of  learning  fostered  by  the  church  and  by  the 
Greek  scholars  of  the  Eastern  Empire  thus  were  gradu- 
ally disseminated.  Out  of  the  mingling  of  the  old  learn- 
ing with  the  forces  and  human  interests  of  a  new  en- 
vironment came  that  larger  conception  of  a  knowledge 
of  letters  as  a  boon  to  all  classes  and  as  a  powerful 
means  to  a  greater  degree  of  social  well-being. 

So  it  happened  that  simultaneously  throughout  Europe 
and  the  American  colonies  there  appeared  the  first  ex- 
pression of  the  idea  of  popular  education.  Practically 
in  the  space  of  a  century  of  time  there  appeared,  as  a 
direct  result  of  the  Reformation,  statutes  and  edicts 
establishing  schools  for  the  people  in  Scotland,  Holland, 
Norway,  Prussia,  and  Massachusetts;  while  only  a  little 
more  extension  of  time  gives  us  also  the  popular  schools 
of  Austria,  Denmark,  Switzerland — all  of  Europe  except 
the  Latin  states,  the  Turkish  domain,  and  Russia. 

10.  Description  of  the  Prussian  System  as  a  Type 

Returning  to  Prussia,  we  may  take  her  schools  as  typ- 
ical of  advanced  European  education  and  as  a  basis  for 
a  little  closer  comparison,  in  detail,  with  the  develop- 
ment of  our  own  system  of  administering  education. 
From  the  time  when  Humboldt  was  made  the  first  Min- 


30  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

ister  of  Public  Instruction,  Prussia  has  had  an  eflScient 
scheme  for  the  administration  of  public  education.  This 
includes  common  schools  for  the  masses,  trade  schools, 
secondary  schools,  normal  schools,  and  universities. 
Briefly,  the  plan  of  administration  is  as  follows:  The 
centre  of  the  system  of  education  in  a  German  state  or 
kingdom  is  in  the  office  of  the  minister  of  ecclesiastical, 
educational,  and  medical  affairs.  This  officer  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  King's  cabinet,  but  his  tenure  is  at  the  will 
of  the  Emperor.  He  has  general  direction  and  super- 
vision of  all  educational  institutions  of  the  kingdom,  in- 
cluding all  examinations;  the  dispensing  of  school  moneys, 
the  fixing  of  salaries  and  the  pensioning  of  teachers;  the 
ratification  of  courses  of  study,  and  the  regulating  of  pri- 
vate schools.  He  further  represents  the  school  interests 
in  the  parliament  of  his  state  and  lays  plans  for  the 
financial  support  of  the  school.  In  his  hands  is  the  ap- 
pointment of  councillors,  members  of  provincial  boards, 
and  other  school  officials,  excepting  such  as  receive  their 
appointment  directly  from  the  Emperor.  The  kingdom 
is  divided  into  provinces,  each  having  a  president  and 
'cabinet;  in  each  cabinet  is  a  provincial  school  councillor; 
through  these  school  councillors  of  the  provinces  the 
minister  communicates  with  the  lower  authorities.  In 
each  province  there  is  also  a  school  board  (Schul-kolle- 
gium)  of  which  the  provincial  councillor  is  head.  With 
him  are  associated  several  others,  all  educational  experts. 
These  boards  have  chiefly  the  oversight  of  secondary 
schools.  Each  province  is  again  divided  into  subdivi- 
sions (Regierungen)  like  large  counties;  each  of  these 
governmental  districts  also  has  its  president  and  coun- 
cillors, including  a  school  councillor;  these  school  coun- 
cillors act  as  examiners  and  supervisors  of  their  entire 
districts  with  special  oversight  of  the  common  schools. 


EVOLUTION  OF  FREE   COMMON  SCHOOLS      31 

Each  district  is  divided  into  circuits  (Kreise)  correspond- 
ing to  our  townships.  The  cities  constitute  circuits  by 
themselves,  and  then  there  are  the  country  circuits.  In 
the  city  the  burgomaster  stands  at  the  head  and  a  com- 
mittee of  three  or  five  members  of  the  city  council  act 
as  the  local  school  board.  At  the  head  of  the  country 
circuit  is  the  Landrath,  and  three  or  five  leading  citizens 
are  appointed  to  act  as  a  school  board.  The  royal 
secondary  schools  are  under  the  direct  care  of  boards  of 
trustees.  These  various  boards  have  about  the  same 
powers  and  duties  as  our  city  school  boards,  except  that 
the  courses  of  study  are  those  prescribed  by  the  central 
government  through  the  office  of  the  minister. 

Generally  speaking,  the  local  authorities  nominate  the 
teacher,  subject  to  approval  by  the  higher  authorities. 
Little  expert  supervision  is  called  for.  The  teachers  are 
approved  by  the  government,  after  receiving  the  pre- 
scribed training,  and  so  are  considered  competent  to  di- 
rect the  work  of  their  schools  in  accordance  with  the 
prescribed  courses.  A  general  supervision  is,  however, 
exercised  by  the  state  through  the  provincial  and  dis- 
trict councillors.  Local  supervision  is  exercised  by  the 
mayor  and  clergymen  or  by  community  school  boards 
or  professional  inspectors  appointed  by  them. 

The  normal  schools  and  universities  are  under  the 
direct  control  of  the  state  and  supported  directly  by  it. 
In  this  way  the  state  is  able  to  exercise  direct  supervi- 
sion of  the  training  of  teachers  and  educational  experts 
who  are  to  direct  the  work  of  instruction  in  all  public 
educational  institutions.  It  is  in  this  manner,  chiefly, 
that  the  state  controls  the  educational  situation. 

The  public  schools  of  Prussia  are  established  and  main- 
tained partly  by  the  state  and  partly  by  communi- 
ties.    In  this  respect  the  state  leaves  the  initiative  to 


32  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

communities,  especially  in  establishing  common  or  folk 
schools  (Volksschulen).  Usually  the  community  raises 
about  three  fourths  of  the  fund  necessary  for  mainte- 
nance. The  other  one  fourth  comes  directly  from  the 
state  and  from  the  income  on  certain  permanent  educa- 
tional funds.  In  the  matter  of  higher  education  the 
state  bears  about  three  eighths  of  the  cost  in  the  case  of 
scientific,  technical,  and  industrial  secondary  schools, 
while  for  the  classical  schools  of  this  grade  the  state's 
share  is  nearly  seven  tenths. 

II.     Secularization  Largely  the  Result  of  a  Religious 
Movement 

The  administrative  plans  of  other  countries  mentioned 
above  will  be  found  to  vary  chiefly  as  influenced  by  pe- 
culiar traditional  institutions  and  methods.  Of  all  it 
may  truly  be  said  that  the  traditions  which  grew  up 
under  the  administration  of  education  by  the  church 
were  most  powerful  in  determining  both  the  types  of 
schools  to  be  organized  and  the  kind  of  instruction  to 
be  given.  Even  yet  this  influence  is  seen  to  be  profound 
both  in  Europe  and  America.  Strangely  enough,  it  was 
a  religious  movement  more  than  anything  else  which 
brought  about  the  secularization  of  education;  for  it 
was  through  the  influence  of  the  Reformation,  as  we  have 
seen,  that  the  vernacular  became  the  medium  of  instruc- 
tion in  all  countries,  the  sole  purpose  of  which  was  to 
make  at  least  the  rudiments  of  education  the  common 
possession  of  all  the  people. 

12.    Beginnings  in  New  England 

It  was  this  influence  that  led  the  colonists  of  Massa- 
chusetts, twenty-two  years  after  the  landing  at  Plym- 
outh Rock,  to  enact  the  first  law  leading  to  the  estab- 


EVOLUTION  OF  FREE   COMMON   SCHOOLS      33 

lishment  of  schools.  This  was  the  order  of  the  General 
Court  of  Elections,  made  in  1642/  and  which  provided: 
(i)  That  the  men  chosen  to  look  after  the  prudential 
affairs  should  have  the  care  of  children  whose  parents 
neglected  their  education.  (2)  To  this  end  they  were 
empowered  to  take  account  of  all  children,  to  ascertain 
concerning  their  calhng  and  employment  and  "of  their 
ability  to  read  and  understand  the  principles  of  religion 
and  the  capital  laws  of  the  country."  (3)  To  appren- 
tice "the  children  of  those  not  able  to  employ  and  bring 
them  up."  (4)  To  look  after  their  general  conduct. 
(5)  They  were  also  to  provide  materials,  tools,  and  im- 
plements for  the  work  of  such  children  as  were  under 
their  care.  In  this  way  it  was  expected  to  provide  that 
no  children  should  grow  up  as  illiterates  or  as  unable  to 
follow  some  useful  occupation.  The  act  of  the  General 
Court  of  1647  l3,id  the  foundation  for  all  subsequent 
legislation  in  the  colony.  As  has  been  seen  in  a  pre- 
vious chapter,  these  two  acts  embodied  practically  all 
the  essential  principles  of  a  free-school  system. 

Six  years  previous  to  the  first  act  in  regard  to  elemen- 
tary instruction,  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts 
had  taken  steps  toward  providing  collegiate  education 
through  the  establishment  of  Harvard  College. 

In  1650''  Connecticut  adopted  practically  the  same 
provisions  in  regard  to  elementary  schools  as  those 
adopted  by  the  Massachusetts  General  Court  in  1647. 
Connecticut  also  agreed  to  support  the  college  at  Cam- 
bridge. Later  provisions  were  made  from  time  to  time 
to  perfect  the  schools  of  the  colony,  and  also  for  the 
establishment  of  a  college.     Yale  College,  at  New  Haven, 

*  See  Mass.  Col.  Record,  II,  8-9. 

^  See  Clews,  "Educational  Legislation  and  Administration  of  the  Colo- 
nial Government,"  pp.  72-163. 


34  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

was  the  result,  established  by  act  of  the  colonial  legisla- 
ture in  October,  1701. 

New  Hampshire,!  through  her  legislature,  first  made 
provision  for  public  education  in  1693.  This  primary 
enactment  was  supported  and  perfected  by  subsequent 
acts,  especially  those  of  1719  and  1721.  Through  the 
efforts  of  Governor  Wentworth  a  royal  charter  was  ob- 
tained in  1769  establishing  Dartmouth  College  at  Han- 
over. 

13.    Pennsylvania 

The  charter  by  which  Charles  II  made  William  Penn 
proprietor  of  the  territory  extending  a  distance  of  five 
degrees  west  of  the  Delaware  River  included  among  its 
provisions  a  committee  of  the  Provincial  Council  to 
have  charge  of  manners,  education  and  arts.^  Immedi- 
ately after  his  arrival  in  his  province  Penn  called  a  pro- 
vincial assembly.  On  the  second  meeting  of  this  as- 
sembly, March,  1683,  provision  was  made  for  the  in- 
struction of  all  children  in  reading  and  writing  and 
in  "some useful  trade  or  skill."  These  schools,  however, 
seem  to  have  been  private  church  schools,  and  were  not 
open  as  free  schools  to  children  of  other  religious  faith 
than  that  of  the  Quakers. 

By  the  amended  constitution  of  1790  the  following 
provision  was  made:  "The  legislature  shall,  as  soon  as 
conveniently  may  be,  provide  by  law  for  the  estabhsh- 
ment  of  schools  throughout  the  State,  in  such  manner 
that  the  poor  may  be  taught  gratis."  Not  imtil  1831, 
however,  was  there  established  a  free  common-school 
system  in  Pennsylvania. 

!  See  Clews,  op.  cit.,  pp.  164-184. 

*See  Clews,  pp.  279-312.  See  also  U.  S.  Com.  Report,  1876,  pp. 
33^-334- 


EVOLUTION  OF  FREE   COMMON   SCHOOLS      35 

14.     New  York  and  New  Jersey 

Schools  were  established  by  the  Dutch  in  New  York^ 
as  early  as  1633.  Provision  was  made  for  one  school 
in  each  parish.  These  schools  were  continued  for  about 
a  century  after  the  EngHsh  occupation.  The  first  Eng- 
lish schools  were  estabhshed  in  the  early  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  King's  College,  the  beginning  of 
what  is  now  Columbia  University,  was  chartered  in 
1754.  In  1789  two  lots  in  each  township  were  set  apart 
to  be  surveyed  "for  gospel  and  school  purposes."  In 
1795  an  act  was  passed  appropriating  fifty  thousand 
dollars  annually  for  five  years  to  encourage  the  establish- 
ment of  schools  in  cities  and  towns  of  the  State.  In 
these  schools  the  children  were  to  be  taught  "English 
grammar,  arithmetic,  mathematics,  and  such  other 
branches  of  knowledge  as  are  most  necessary  to  com- 
plete a  good  English  education."  Other  arrangements 
were  made  whereby  a  very  good  system  of  schools  for 
that  time  might  be  administered.  But  the  act  of  1795 
expired  by  Hmitation  in  1800,  and  no  permanent  re- 
newal of  organized  schools  was  accomphshed  until  18 12. 

In  New  Jersey  the  first  schools  were  "rate  schools" 
estabhshed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Friends  in  1693. 
Not  until  18 16  did  the  State  make  any  provision  for  free 
schools. 

15.    Delaware  and  Maryland 

The  warring  interests  of  different  national  types  in 
Delaware  effectually  prevented  the  estabHshment  of  any 
system  of  people's  schools  during  the  colonial  period. 

*  See  U.  S.  Com.  Report,  1876-77,  pp.  273-276.  Also  W.  H.  Kirk- 
patrick,  "The  Dutch  Schools  of  New  Netherland  and  Colonial  New 
York,"  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1912,  no.  12. 


36  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

So  also  the  peculiar  conditions  of  settlement,  and  the 
failure  of  the  English  type  of  grammar-schools  to  find 
subsistence,  made  Maryland  barren,  as  a  colony,  of  any 
notable  progress  in  public  education. 

1 6.     Virginia 

It  was  as  late  as  1797  before  Virginia  was  able  to 
enact  a  law  for  the  establishment  of  public  schools. 
Previous  to  this  time  the  wealthier  classes  provided  for 
the  education  of  their  children  chiefly  by  employing 
tutors  in  their  homes.  It  was  through  the  influence  of 
Jefferson  and  Wythe,  who  framed  the  measure,  that  the 
first  free-school  legislation  was  secured  for  Virginia. 

17.    The  Carolinas  and  Georgia 

Free  schools  were  established  in  North  Carolina^  in 
1749.  Practically  all  of  the  better  influences  found  in 
New  England  and  the  middle  colonies  were  represented 
in  the  character  of  the  settlers  of  North  Carolina.  Here 
were  Scotch,  Irish,  EngHsh,  Dutch,  and  German.  The 
chief  difference  seems  to  have  been  in  the  fact  that  the 
homogeneity  of  the  population  of  the  colonies  of  New 
England  was  wanting  here.  Still  the  colony  moved  for- 
ward educationally  in  a  most  remarkable  way.  The 
eighteenth  century  saw  the  establishment  not  only  of 
the  free  elementary  schools,  but  also  of  academies  and 
the  University  of  North  Carolina.  The  first  State  con- 
stitution, adopted  in  December,  1776,  contains  these 
memorable  words:  "A  school  or  schools  shall  be  estab- 
lished by  the  Legislature  for  the  convenient  instruction 
of  youth,  with  such  salaries  to  the  masters,  paid  by  the 
public,  as  may  enable  them  to  instruct  at  low  prices; 

'See  C.  L.  Smith,  "History  of  Education  in  North  Carolina,"  Circ. 
of  Inf.,  no.  2,  1888,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education. 


EVOLUTION  OF  FREE   COMMON   SCHOOLS      37  ) 

and  all  useful  learning  shall  be  duly  encouraged  and  pro- 
moted in  one  or  more  universities." 

Under  the  direction  of  the  English  church  free  schools 
were  estabHshed  in  South  Carolina^  as  early  as  171 2. 
The  parish  system  was  customary,  and  all  classes  were 
given  the  advantages  of  elementary  education.  In  many 
cases  slaves  were  included  among  those  who  shared  these 
privileges.  The  organization  of  academies  followed  that 
of  the  parish  schools,  and  a  number  of  colleges  also  de- 
veloped in  response  to  the  demand  for  higher  education. 
In  the  constitution  and  character  of  its  local  government 
this  colony  approached  the  colonies  of  New  England 
and  Virginia. 

Previous  to  the  Revolutionary  War  Georgia  had  no 
plan  for  public  education,  and  so  calls  for  no  considera- 
tion in  this  connection. 


18.     Common  Origin  and  Character  in  Europe  and 
America 


;^ 


Thus,  while  we  find  education  in  some  form  provided 
for  in  all  the  colonies,  yet  it  remains  true  that  the  real 
founding  of  the  pubhc  free  schools  of  the  United  States 
was  by  the  people  of  Massachusetts.  As  shown  pre- 
viously,^ these  early  schools  were  based  on  principles 
which  have  become  fundamental  to  our  larger  school 
system. 

If  we  now  compare  the  general  conditions  under  which 
popular  schools  were  established  in  Europe  and  America, 
the  striking  thing  that  appears  to  us  is  the  common 
origin  of  the  idea  and  the  similarity  in  the  character  of 
the  schools.     All  were  established  primarily  for  the  gen- 

'  See  B.  James  Ramage  in  Johns  Hopkins  Sl-udies,  vol.  I,  no.  12,  "Local 
Government  and  Free  Schools  in  South  Carolina." 
2  Chap.  II. 


38  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

eral  enlightenment  of  the  people  in  regard  to  religious 
teachings,  largely  as  a  result  of  the  Reformation;  and 
nearly  all  passed  gradually  from  the  religious  to  the  secu- 
lar form  as  the  needs  of  the  entire  social  group,  aside 
from  considerations  purely  religious,  became  more  evi- 
dent. 

Again,  in  the  general  character  and  purpose  of  public 
education  throughout  all  the  countries  under  considera- 
tion we  find  that  two  ideas  were  emphasized  about 
equally  as  determining  the  aims  and  purposes  of  these 
''people's  schools":  the  need  of  general  intelligence  on 
the  part  of  citizens  of  all  classes,  and  the  need  of  care- 
ful training  for  some  industrial  pursuit. 

19.     Some  Striking  Differences 

There  were  certain  striking  differences  between  Eu- 
rope and  the  American  colonies.  The  traditional  hold  of 
ecclesiasticism  on  education  was  much  stronger  in  the 
older  established  order  of  things  in  Europe.  Social  strat- 
ification and  the  existence  of  caste  affected  the  European 
situation,  but  were  largely  absent  in  the  colonies.  The 
government  of  the  colonies,  especially  New  England, 
was  characteristically  repubhcan  in  form  from  the  begin- 
ning. With  these  differences,  due  to  traditional  in- 
fluences chiefly,  we  must  put  one  characteristic  which  all 
the  countries  we  have  been  considering  held  in  common : 
they  were  all  essentially  democratic.  Whatever  differ- 
ences have  developed,  therefore,  in  their  various  indi- 
vidual schemes  of  education  must  be  considered  as  due 
to  the  influence  of  traditions  concerning  the  social  order- 
ing of  things,  either  in  industries,  religion,  or  govern- 
ment, or  to  a  relative  freedom  from  such  traditions,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  colonies. 


EVOLUTION  OF  FREE   COMMON   SCHOOLS     (39, 

20.     The  United  States  as  Type  for  this  Study 

The  title  of  this  volume  suggests  a  broad  treatment  of 
the  subject,  one  which  might  be  considered  as  disregard- 
ing national  limitations.  After  such  a  survey  of  the 
field  as  has  just  been  given,  however,  it  seems  evident 
that  the  more  recently  organized  national  groups  present 
features  more  nearly  ideal  for  the  purposes  of  this  dis- 
cussion. This  would  seem  sufficient  reason  of  itself,  re- 
gardless of  the  one  most  powerful  incentive  of  patri- 
otic interest,  why  this  volume  should  be  devoted  to  a 
consideration  of  the  United  States  as  a  field  for  the  evo- 
lution of  an  ideal  scheme  for  the  administration  of  edu- 
cation by  a  democracy. 


21.     European  Influence  Upon  America 

We  have  seen  that  a  number  of  countries  were  inter- 
ested at  the  same  time  in  the  growth  of  the  idea  of  free 
popular  education.  It  was  inevitable  that  they  should 
have  influenced  each  other  at  this  time,  and  that  in  the 
groping  for  ways  and  means  of  accompHshing  this  radi- 
cal and  stupendously  daring  enterprise,  no  opportunity 
should  have  been  lost  for  the  exchange  of  views  and 
experiences.  It  would  be  particularly  the  case  in  the 
New  World  that  many  Europeans  should  be  profoundly 
interested  in  the  experiment  which  was  evolving  out  of 
the  new  life  of  the  American  colonies.  The  revolution- 
ary period  is  thus  found  to  be  rich  in  evidences  that  the 
leaders  of  this  country  were  kept  fully  ahve  to  the  edu- 
cational developments  going  on  in  Europe. 

England's  influence  had  come  through  the  traditions 
brought  by  the  colonists  from  the  mother  country.  So 
it  was  the  logical  thing  that  the  grammar-school,  as  the 
means  of  preparing  youth  for  college,  and  the  college 


40  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

itself,  as  the  training  place  for  the  favored  few  who  were 
to  follow  the  professions  of  theology,  law,  or  other  liter- 
ary pursuits,  should  have  been  patterned  after  the  Eng- 
lish schools  of  the  same  grades.  Indeed,  we  are  told 
that  no  inconsiderable  number  of  New  England  colo- 
nists were  college  trained,  and  that  the  proportionate 
number  of  graduates  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  was  fully 
equal  to  that  of  the  mother  country.  But  here  EngUsh 
influence  stops.  There  is  nothing  from  the  British  Isles, 
imless,  possibly,  from  Scotland,  which  could  in  any  way 
account  for  that  new  and  rapid  development  which  char- 
acterized the  colonial  type  of  education,  especially  in 
New  England. 

Every  school  child  is  familiar  with  those  peculiar  con- 
ditions in  regard  to  the  government  of  the  English  col- 
onies which  so  rapidly  developed  self-reliance  and  a  spirit 
of  independence  among  them.  It  seems  probable  enough 
that  Douglass  Campbell^  has  good  ground  for  his  belief 
in  the  Dutch  ancestry  of  the  New  England  common 
school.  We  can  hardly  believe  that  the  stay  of  the 
Pilgrims  at  Leyden  should  have  been  entirely  without 
results  in  this  respect  when  we  consider  the  intense  activ- 
ity of  the  Netherlanders  at  that  time  and  the  great  prog- 
ress they  had  achieved  in  the  development  of  such  schools 
among  themselves.  We  may  well  put  with  this  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Dutch  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Delaware  through  the  schools  estabhshed  by  them. 
John  Locke  is  usually  considered  as  representing  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Enghsh  upon  the  educational  ideals  of 
the  colonists.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  even  in  his 
case  there  is  an  element  of  Dutch  influence  on  account 
of  his  stay  as  an  exile  in  Holland.     This  seems  all  the 

1  In  his  "The  Pxiritan  in  Holland,  England,  and  America,"  vol.  II, 
PP-  338-342. 


EVOLUTION  OF  FREE   COMMON   SCHOOLS      41 

more  probable  if  we  connect  with  this  the  other  fact  of 
his  familiarity  with  the  work  of  Comenius. 

The  political  experience  of  the  Netherlands  had  cer- 
tainly been  such  as  to  put  these  people  in  full  sympathy 
with  the  American  struggle  for  independence.  From 
the  time  when  a  cordial  welcome  was  extended  to  the 
fugitive  band  of  Pilgrims  from  England  until  the  time 
of  our  Civil  War  the  Dutch  people  have  ever  evinced  a 
fraternal  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  American  Re- 
pubUc. 

But  it  was  during  the  Revolutionary  period,  when  lead- 
ing men  of  the  colonies  first  began  to  face  the  possibil- 
ity of  independence  and  the  consequent  responsibiUties 
in  the  organization  of  a  new  government  suited  to  the 
character  and  ideals  of  a  liberty-loving  people,  that  the 
interest  in  popular  education  as  a  state  function  began 
to  intensify.  Men  like  Milton  and  Locke  had  already 
left  their  impress  upon  the  minds  of  those  to  whom 
was  to  come  the  business  of  framing  this  new  govern- 
ment. Aside  from  this,  England's  influence  on  the  evo- 
lution of  our  educational  system  was  at  an  end. 

It  was  natural  that  in  this  crisis  the  colonies  should 
be  drawn  to  France,  and  that  France  should  take  a 
corresponding  interest  in  the  development  of  a  new  na- 
tion in  a  new  world.  The  sending  of  Adams,  Jefferson, 
and  Franklin  as  a  commission  to  the  French  Govern- 
ment bore  other  fruits  than  those  of  their  diplomacy. 
Adams  himself  tells  us^  that  it  was  largely  through  this 
influence  by  contact  with  Frenchmen  that  he  was  led 
to  promote  the  establishment  of  the  Boston  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Sciences;   and  that  the  same  influence  was  a 

*  See  "Life  and  Works  of  John  Adams,"  edited  by  Charles  Francis 
Adams,  vol.  IV,  pp.  257-260.  (Referred  to  by  Hinsdale,  U.  S.  Com. 
Report,  1892-3,  vol.  II,  p.  1316.) 


42  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

strong  factor  in  the  preparation  of  that  part  of  the 
constitution  of  Massachusetts  which  marks  the  first 
legal  establishment  of  free  public  schools  in  the  United 
States.  Thus  in  the  act  which  made  John  Adams  the 
father  of  our  public-school  system  we  see  the  influence 
of  France;  for  it  was  he  who  incorporated  this  system 
into  the  fundamental  law  of  the  State  which,  as  a 
colony,  first  gave  it  origin. 

Through  Jefferson  French  influence  is  seen  in  his  plans 
for  the  organization  of  the  University  of  Virginia.  For 
while  Jefferson,  in  accomphshing  this  task,  sought  ideas 
from  all  sources,  yet  the  evidence  seems  clear  that  among 
all  these  influences  that  of  the  French  scholars  with  whom 
he  came  in  contact  stands  first.  When  we  consider  this 
in  connection  with  Jefferson's  interest  in  an  educational 
system  for  his  State,  and  later  the  influences  which 
marked  the  estabUshment  of  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan, we  may  readily  comprehend  something  of  the  influ- 
ence France  has  had  upon  the  organization  of  our  higher 
institutions  of  learning.  Nor  should  we  omit  New  York, 
especially  in  the  peculiar  organization  of  its  university, 
which  bears  unmistakable  evidences  of  the  influence  of 
Napoleon's  idea  of  a  university  as  established  under  his 
control  of  affairs  in  France. 

Many  French  writers  and  travellers,  as  well  as  the 
French  patriots  who  aided  directly  in  the  American 
Revolution  through  their  writings  and  through  personal 
contact  with  American  leaders,  exercised  a  profound  in- 
fluence upon  the  shaping  of  the  new  government  and 
the  ordering  of  its  fundamental  institutions.  Taken  all 
together  the  sum  total  of  this  influence  which  came  to 
our  educational  system  through  the  French  people  is 
large  and  important.  It  is  all  the  more  interesting  as 
representing  the  ideals  of  the  leaders  in  thought  among 


EVOLUTION  OF  FREE   COMMON  SCHOOLS      43 

another  great  liberty-loving  people  whose  traditional  in- 
fluences have  restrained  them,  until  quite  recently,  from 
any  considerable  advance  toward  realizing  these  ideals 
for  themselves. 

Among  the  earlier  German  influences  affecting  educa- 
tion in  this  country,  and  especially  the  order  of  its  es- 
tablishment as  a  system,  are  those  of  Comenius,'  Pes- 
talozzi,  and  Fellenberg.  These  influences  have  come  to 
us  partly  through  published  writings  on  education,  but 
more  particularly  by  direct  contact  through  study  in 
German  universities,  especially  at  Gottingen,  Halle,  and 
Berlin.  This  influence  has  been  very  far-reaching  and 
profound,  and  still  continues  so  to  the  present  day. 
The  earlier  influence  grew  out  of  the  necessity,  on  the 
part  of  American  youth  who  sought  higher  training,  of 
making  use  of  the  great  universities  above  referred  to. 
This  again  was  greatly  augmented  through  the  influence 
exerted  by  the  report  to  the  French  Government,  in 
1837,  of  M.  Victor  Cousin  on  "Public  Instruction  in 
Prussia." 

Thus,  by  the  commingling  of  thought,  the  exchange  of 
ideals  and  experiences  among  nations  whose  leading 
spirits  are  represented  by  men  like  Luther,  Milton,  Locke, 
Comenius,  Pestalozzi,  Rousseau,  Franklin,  Adams,  Jef- 
ferson— all,  in  turn,  tested  and  tempered  by  the  philos- 
ophy of  Aristotle,  Plato,  and  Fichte — there  came  that 
conception  of  education  as  an  essential  prerequisite  to  a 
successful  democracy  that  led  to  the  establishment  of 
free  schools  in  the  United  States. 

*  Inseparably  bound  up,  in  this  instance,  with  the  Dutch  influence. 


PART  TWO 

SOCIETY'S  PART  IN  THE  ADMINISTRA- 
TION OF  EDUCATION 

CHAPTER  IV 

THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  SCHOOLS:    LAWS,  AND  UNITS 
OF  CONTROL 

We  may  now  proceed  to  consider  the  steps  taken  in 
the  establishment  of  schools  in  this  country  after  the 
adoption  of  the  federal  constitution.  As  we  have  already 
seen/  no  provision  was  made  in  that  document  for  the 
organization  of  education.  By  common  consent  this 
function  was  permitted  to  pass  to  the  States.  We  have 
found  that  when  the  colonies  advanced  to  statehood, 
immediately  after  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  by 
the  adoption  of  constitutions,  several  of  them  embodied 
in  their  fundamental  laws  a  provision  for  schools.  There 
were  six  of  these,  and  among  the  first,  as  already  cited  ,^ 
was  North  Carolina.  By  reason  of  the  fulness  of  state- 
ment embodied  in  her  constitution,  Massachusetts  ranks 
first  in  New  England  and  readily  became  a  pattern  not 
only  for  the  rest  of  New  England  but  for  many  of  the 
States  subsequently  erected  out  of  the  vast  Northwest 
Territory.  The  precedent  established  by  North  Caro- 
lina also  became  influential,  similarly,  as  populations 
developed  westward  from  the  Southern  colonies. 

1  Chap.  II.  -  See  p.  36. 

44 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  SCHOOLS  45 

I.     Significance  of  Constitutional  Treatment  of 
Education 

The  chief  significance  of  the  treatment  given  to  edu- 
cation in  the  constitutional  provisions  of  the  States  lies 
in  the  fact  that  this  instrument  is  the  one  in  which  the 
people  undertake,  through  their  representatives,  to  ex- 
press their  ideals  in  regard  to  government  and  the  in- 
stitutions fundamental  to  its  maintenance.  In  other 
words,  it  is  a  referendum  vote;  and  whatever  is  most 
vital,  as  felt  by  the  people,  to  the  carr3dng  into  effect 
of  the  government  thus  set  up,  we  naturally  expect  to 
find  included  in  such  a  document.  But  the  colonies 
were  new  at  the  business  of  constitution  framing;  and 
with  no  very  elaborate  type  from  which  to  copy,  there 
was  naturally  great  variety  in  the  results.  This  varia- 
tion was  evident  enough  as  regards  educational  provi- 
sions which  seven  of  the  original  colonies  omitted  en- 
tirely. Subsequently,  however,  as  they  were  reminded 
of  this  omission,  especially  by  the  grant  of  school  lands 
by  Congress  in  1789,  these  States  revised  their  constitu- 
tions, so  that  now  the  fundamental  law  of  all  the  States 
recognizes,  in  some  way,  the  necessity  and  importance 
of  schools. 

2.     Nature  and  Extent  of  Such  Legislation 

It  was  in  this  manner  that  the  first  important  legaliz- 
ing acts  in  the  establishment  of  school  administration 
in  the  United  States  came  about.  Now  thirty-three  of 
the  States  specifically  require  that  the  legislature  shall 
establish  a  system  of  free  schools  offering  uniform  and 
general  educational  advantages.  Those  States  not  spe- 
cifically commanding  such  establishment  do,  by  impli- 
cation, indicate  such  a  course  to  be  the  will  and  pur- 


46  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

pose  of  the  people.  Nor  do  the  States  confine  the 
proposed  plan  of  popular  education  to  the  teaching  of 
the  rudiments  in  elementary  schools.  In  nearly  every 
case  provision  is  also  made  for  higher  schools,  for  normal 
schools,  and  for  college  and  university  training,  with 
frequent  emphasis  on  training  in  agriculture  and  the 
mechanic  arts. 

In  some  of  the  States,  notably  of  the  North  Central 
and  Pacific  groups,  the  constitutions  undertake  to  define 
rather  fully  the  scope  of  the  educational  system  to  be 
set  up.  Indiana,  for  instance,  directs  that  the  General 
Assembly  shall  pro\ade  for  a  "general  system  of  educa- 
tion ascending  in  regular  gradation  from  township  schools 
to  State  University,  wherein  tuition  shall  be  gratis  and 
open  to  all."  Here  ''township  schools"  indicate  the 
prevalence  of  the  township  unit  of  organization  of  schools. 
California  (1879)  very  explicitly  defines  the  school  system 
as  including  "primary  and  grammar  schools,  and  such 
high  schools,  evening  schools,  normal  schools,  and  tech- 
nical schools  as  may  be  established  by  the  Legislature, 
or  by  municipal  and  district  authority."  In  North  Da- 
kota the  provision  is  for  a  system  of  free  schools  "begin- 
ning with  the  primary  and  extending  through  all  grades 
up  to  and  including  the  normal  and  collegiate  courses." 
This  State  also  emphasizes  moral  education.  The  pro- 
vision of  the  constitution  of  Utah  with  regard  to  the 
kinds  of  schools  to  be  estabUshed  is  perhaps  the  most 
explicit  of  all.  It  defines  the  system  of  education  for 
that  State  as  including  "kindergarten  schools,  common 
schools  consisting  of  primary  and  grammar  grades;  high 
schools;  an  agricultural  college,  a  imiversity,  and  such 
other  schools  as  the  Legislature  may  establish." 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF   SCHOOLS  47 

3.     Appearance  of  Local  Influences 

Some  of  the  diflferences  noticeable  in  State  constitu- 
tions are  readily  seen  to  be  the  result  of  local  influences. 
For  instance,  eight  of  the  Southern  States  prescribe  sep- 
arate schools  for  whites  and  blacks.  Going  quite  to  the 
opposite  extreme  in  this  respect  are  Wyoming  and  Wash- 
ington. The  former  forbids  distinctions  due  to  "race, 
sex,  or  color,"  while  the  latter  declares  that  there  shall 
be  no  distinction  made  "on  account  of  race,  color,  caste, 
or  sex." 

The  use  of  fimds  for  denominational  or  sectarian 
schools  is  constitutionally  prohibited  by  some  States; 
Nevada  prohibits  sectarian  instruction  in  public  schools; 
Utah  forbids  the  requirement  of  any  "religious  or  par- 
tisan qualifications  of  teachers  or  pupils";  while  Mis- 
sissippi, on  the  other  hand,  forbids  the  exclusion  of  the 
Bible  from  the  schools.  The  State  of  New  York  has 
gone  even  so  far  in  practice  as  to  subsidize  certain 
church  schools  under  regulations  prescribed  by  the  State. 

Both  Michigan  and  Georgia  require  that  the  instruc- 
tion in  free  elementary  schools  be  in  the  English  language. 

4.    Other  Notable  Provisions  in  State  Constitutions 

Compulsory  attendance  laws  are  prescribed  or  per- 
mitted by  South  Carolina,  Virginia,  Missouri,  Texas, 
Colorado,  Idaho,  and  Oklahoma;  while  Massachusetts, 
Connecticut,  Minnesota,  and  Missouri  demand  an  edu- 
cational qualification  of  electors.  Most  of  the  States 
make  the  school  age  a  matter  of  constitutional  legislation. 

AU  State  constitutions  provide  for  the  proper  care  and 
sale  of  school  lands  and  for  the  investment  and  conser- 
vation of  school  funds.  In  the  matter  of  taxation  there 
is  considerable  variation.     The  prevailing  plan  is  to 


48  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

combine  State,  county,  tovmship,  and  district  systems 
of  taxation  for  the  support  of  the  common  schools.  In 
a  few  States  taxation  is  Umited  almost  entirely  to  the 
State.  In  others  the  county  system  seems  to  dominate. 
In  a  few  cases,  again,  a  per-capita  tax  is  called  for. 
Usually  the  State  provides  for  all  higher  institutions, 
while  high  schools  are  scarcely  mentioned  among  con- 
stitutional provisions. 

In  the  matter  of  providing  for  ofl&cers  of  administra- 
tion, State  supervision  is  expressly  mentioned  in  most 
constitutions.  Not  quite  so  commonly  are  State  boards 
constituted;  while  in  a  few  cases  county  supervision  is 
authorized. 

5.    Influence  of  Historical  Movements  Noted 

As  one  reads  the  constitutions^  of  some  of  the  States, 
as  they  have  been  revised  from  time  to  time,  there  are 
seen  marked  evidences  of  the  influence  of  historical 
movements  in  this  country.  The  first  and  perhaps  the 
most  remarkable  evidence  of  this  kind  is  seen  in  the 
constitution  of  Massachusetts.  Here  are  concentrated 
the  ideals  of  the  Pilgrims  as  they  were  evolved  out  of 
their  colonial  experiences.  As  we  shall  further  note  later 
on,  these  ideals  have  had  a  powerful  influence  upon  State 
school  systems  throughout  the  North  and  West.  Next 
to  this  should  be  considered  the  peculiar  type  of  or- 
ganization established  in  the  Southern  colonies.  Out  of 
the  pecuhar  system  of  landholding  established  in  those 
colonies  we  see  particularly  the  development  of  the 
county  unit  of  control  which  has  prevailed  until  now. 
While  this  does  not  now  appear  so  plainly  in  the  con- 
stitutions of  the  States  erected  out  of  these  Southern 

•  For  a  summary  of  constitutional  provisions  regarding  education 
down  to  1894,  see  U.  S.  Com.  Report,  1892-3,  vol.  II,  pp.  1312-1414. 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  SCHOOLS  49 

colonies,  yet  it  was  there  essentially  from  the  beginning 
although,  perhaps,  not  directly  expressed  in  relation  to 
education. 

The  first  real  innovation  came  with  the  federal  land 
grants  having  their  inception  in  the  Ordinance  of  1787. 
This  is  readily  seen  in  the  emphasis  given  in  subsequent 
constitutions  of  new  States  erected  out  of  the  North- 
west Territory  and  later  out  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase, 
the  Mexican  lands,  and  Texas.  These  provisions  all 
refer  especially  to  methods  of  caring  for  the  school  lands 
and  the  revenues  derived  therefrom.  \ 

The  results  of  the  Civil  War  and  of  ijie  reconstruction 
period  on  the  South  are  especially  noticeable.  South 
Carolina,  for  instance,  in  the  constitution  of  1868,  says 
that  "all  the  public  schools,  colleges,  and  universities 
of  the  State,  supported  in  whole  or  part  by  the  public 
funds,  shall  be  free  and  open  to  all  the  children  and 
youths  of  the  State,  without  regard  to  race  or  color." 
It  is  needless  to  say  that  this  could  not  long  be  enforced. 
In  the  constitution  of  that  State,  adopted  in  1895,  we 
read:  "Separate  schools  shall  be  provided  for  children 
of  the  white  and  colored  races,  and  no  child  of  either 
race  shall  ever  be  permitted  to  attend  a  school  provided 
for  children  of  the  other  race." 

6.    Tendency  Toward  Centralized  Control 

But  perhaps  the  most  interesting  and  important  of 
these  historical  influences  is  seen  in  the  reaction  which 
appears  from  the  strongly  decentrahzed  type  of  educa- 
tional administration  which  characterized  the  earlier 
constitutions  toward  a  more  strongly  centralized  con- 
trol of  schools.  In  the  constitutions  of  those  States  of 
the  Central  West  which  were  admitted  in  the  first  quarter 
or  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  prevailing  type  of 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

administrative  organization  is  strongly  decentralized. 
On  the  other  hand,  Virginia,  the  home  of  Jefferson,  in  its 
constitution  enacted  in  1869,  and  again  still  more  em- 
phatically in  the  constitution  of  1902  ^  provides  for 
strong  centralized  control  in  matters  of  education.  In- 
diana, Minnesota,  and  Cahfornia  have  manifested  a  sim- 
ilar reactionary  tendency  toward  centralized  control; 
while  New  York  has  gone  to  the  extreme,  practically, 
of  what  would  seem  to  be  feasible  to  a  republican  State. 

7.     Constitutions  Mark  Evolution  of  Conception  of 
Democracy 

Thus,  in  a  positive  though  often  fragmentary  or  in- 
complete way,  the  States  have  made  the  establishment 
of  schools  and  the  setting  up  of  educational  systems  a 
part  of  their  fundamental  laws.  And  here  again  do  we 
find  in  the  revisions  of  constitutions,  which  in  some  of 
the  States  have  been  frequent,  another  evidence  of  the 
evolution,  in  the  minds  of  the  people,  of  a  truer  con- 
ception of  democracy  and  its  needs.  It  would  be  easy 
to  construct,  out  of  these  various  State  documents,  by 
piecing  together  educational  provisions  selected  from 
them,  a  "model  constitution"  affecting  the  organiza- 
tion and  administration  of  schools;  but  such  an  instru- 
ment would  have  little  meaning  or  value.  Gradually 
the  people  are  getting  a  clearer  vision  of  what  is  re- 
quired, and,  if  not  through  their  constitutional  conven- 
tions, then  by  means  of  legislative  enactment,  they  are 
moulding  and  perfecting  the  mechanism  of  this  greatest 
of  all  instruments  in  the  hands  of  an  enlightened  popu- 
lar government. 

^  See  the  present  constitution  of  Virginia. 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF   SCHOOLS  51 

8.     Legislatures  Have  Supplemented  Constitutional 
Provisions 

It  frequently  happens  that  in  a  State  where  little 
of  a  definite  nature  is  said  in  the  constitution  in  regard 
to  education  there  will  be  found  to  exist  one  of  the  most 
complete  systems  of  all  for  which  provision  has  been 
made  by  the  legislature,  frequently  through  the  leader- 
ship of  the  State  Superintendent  of  PubHc  Instruction 
or  the  State  Board  of  Education.  It  is  this  law-created 
mechanism  which  is  the  basis  for  the  administration  of 
education.  Only  upon  the  clear  and  specific  sanctions 
thus  given  by  society  can  there  be  any  effective  pro- 
cedure in  an  enterprise  involving  such  cost  and  so  many 
varying  interests  as  does  a  system  of  pubHc  schools.     , 

Speaking  in  the  abstract,  it  may  be  considered  cause 
for  regret  that  all  the  States,  and  even  the  nation,  have 
not  embodied  in  the  supreme  law  a  clear  and  definite 
statement  of  the  chief  things  to  be  done  in  the  interests 
of  free  popular  education.  It  still  remains  true,  how- 
ever, that  both  in  these  primary  enactments  and  in  the  / 
body  of  laws  governing  schools  there  are  strong  and 
cheering  evidences  of  a  steady  forward  movement  in  the 
evolution  of  this  social  institution  and  its  adjustment  , 
to  the  conditions  under  which  it  must  operate.  .^ 

Having  thus  prepared  ourselves,  through  this  brief 
historical  survey,  for  a  more  sympathetic  perception 
and  understanding  of  the  ideals  and  purposes  that  have 
been  operative  until  now  in  the  establishment  of  our 
educational  system,  let  us  proceed  to  analyze  more  mi- 
nutely this  administrative  structure  as  it  appears  in  the 
legislative  acts,  both  general  and  specific,  by  means  of 
which  it  has  been  reared. 


52  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

9.    Units  of  Control  Under  Religious  Influences 

From  our  earliest  knowledge  of  the  Germanic  races, 
or  of  the  history  of  any  race,  for  that  matter,  a  funda- 
mental aspect  of  social  control  has  appeared  in  the  unit 
of  territory  as  supporting  a  given  or  possible  population 
over  which  that  control  may  extend.  So,  when  it  comes 
to  the  setting  up  of  various  legal  sanctions  in  regard  to 
the  dissemination  of  education  among  a  people,  the  first 
problem  to  consider  is  that  of  educational  units  of  ter- 
ritory. <The  early  connection  of  education  with  religion, 
and  its  dependence  upon  the  church  for  the  administra- 
tive function,  naturally  had  much  to  do  with  the  order 
of  division  into  units  of  administration.  The  congre- 
gation was  the  group  to  which  the  individual  church 
ministered,  and  the  parish  was  its  territory.  Naturally, 
the  administration  of  education  would  be  similarly  lim- 
(  ited.  Likewise  when  the  schools  passed  to  the  secular 
form  the  imits  of  territory  which  served  for  the  admin- 
/istering  of  law  and  of  justice  also  formed  the  basis  for 
limiting  the  territorial  extent  of  the  service  rendered  by 
a  single  school.^ 

In  most  European  countries  we  have  seen  that  the 
religious  and  secular  functions  of  the  school  have,  in 
many  cases,  remained  parallel  and  co-operative  in  their 
administration.  In  the  colonies  this  was  also  true  at 
first;  but  later,  with  complete  secularization  of  educa- 
tion, came  a  change.  The  strong  decentralizing  influ- 
ences at  work  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  and  begin- 
ning of  the  nineteenth  centuries  had  a  marked  effect  on 
the  organization  of  the  schools.  It  was  then  that  the 
idea  of  the  school  district  as  the  local  administrative  unit 
became  established  in  our  system. 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT   OF  SCHOOLS  53 

10.    Development  of  City  Units 

Another  factor  which  had  to  do  with  the  determina- 
tion of  administrative  units  in  education  was  the  devel- 
opment of  popular  education  in  cities.  We  have  found 
that  very  early  in  the  history  of  European  schools  this 
factor  became  apparent  as  cities  began  to  insist  on  a 
form  of  education  suited  to  the  demands  of  commercial 
and  other  industries  rapidly  developing  in  these  centres 
of  population.  As  a  result,  the  city  and  town  have\.  ^ 
played  a  very  important  part  in  determining  their  own  7 
types  of  organization  in  matters  educational.  / 

11.     Principles  Involved 

In  all  of  this  the  primary  principle  involved  has  been 
the  generally  convenient  and  equitable  limit  of  service 
and  attendance  for  the  individual  school  centre.  Out 
of  this,  as  a  fundamental  cause,  other  conditions  as  to 
territorial  units  have  been  gradually  evolved.  The  idea 
of  such  a  limitation  of  service  had  developed  long  before 
in  connection  with  other  interests.  It  was  the  simple 
logic  of  social  development  that  this  idea  should  be 
transferred  in  the  case  of  the  newer  institution. 

Another  principle  involved  in  the  establishment  of 
definite  territorial  units,  and  one  corollary  to  that  of 
service,  is  suggested  by  Massachusetts  in  the  ordinance 
of  1647  ill  which  it  is  said  of  those  who  are  set  aside  to 
teach  that  their  ''wages  shall  he  paid  either  by  the  par- 
ents or  masters  of  such  children  {of  the  township)  ^  or  by 
the  inhabitants  in  general,  by  way  of  supply,  as  the 
major  part  of  those  that  order  the  prudentials  of  the 
town  shall  appoint  J  ^  Thus  was  introduced  the  prin- 
ciple of  public  maintenance  "by  the  inhabitants  in  gen- 
eral" of  the  township,  this  being  the  district  to  which 


54  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

the  school  was  then  expected  to  minister.  The  idea 
that  general  intelligence  was  a  direct  gain  to  the  whole 
social  group,  and  well  worth  paying  for  as  a  common 
and  indispensable  service,  had  not  yet  developed  fully 
in  the  minds  of  the  colonists.  But  the  policy  thus  set 
up  has  prevailed;  and  the  chief  burden  of  maintenance 
of  common  schools  throughout  the  Northern  States  has 
remained  with  the  local  district  or  township  unit  until 
now. 

This  principle  and  the  policy  which  has  thus  become 
traditional  present  one  of  the  largest  problems,  from 
society's  standpoint,  in  the  administration  of  education. 
A  little  further  on  a  fuller  consideration  will  be  given  to 
this  problem  of  maintenance  of  the  educational  system. 

A  third  principle  should  also  be  mentioned  here  as 
having  great  significance  in  determining  the  chief  unit 
of  administrative  control  in  education.  This  principle 
did  not  become  strongly  apparent  until  Revolutionary 
times,  and  has  since  been  the  subject  of  much  debate, 
and  especially  in  recent  years.  This  is  the  principle  of 
popular  participation  in  the  management  as  well  as  in 
the  maintenance  of  the  common  schools.  We  have  re- 
ferred to  the  decentralizing  movement  observable  in 
school  legislation.^  This  is  one  of  the  manifestations, 
in  the  concrete,  of  the  popular  idea  of  democracy. 
There  is  in  this  something  of  the  idea  of  Horace  Mann 
when  he  said:  "The  education  of  the  whole  people,  in 
a  republican  government,  can  never  be  obtained  without 
the  consent  of  the  whole  people."  ^  Yet  Horace  Mann 
himself  denounced  the  idea  of  local  control  by  districts 
as  wasteful  and  inefficient.  We  are  coming,  as  a  people, 
to  understand  that  the  stability  and  efficiency  of  repub- 
lican institutions  must  depend  more  largely  upon  powers 
'  See  p.  49.  *  Quoted  on  p.  18. 


THE   ESTABLISHMENT  OF   SCHOOLS  55 

delegated  and  at  the  same  time  guarded  by  explicit  con- 
stitutional and  legislative  limitations.  The  participa- 
tion of  the  people  is  not  to  be  less  but  different.  It  is 
to  be  that  of  a  people  grown  intelUgent  enough  to  think 
clearly  as  to  the  relation  of  the  men  selected  as  their 
representatives  to  the  principles  and  laws  for  which  all 
the  people  stand  and  which  embody  those  sanctions 
essential  to  the  healthful  operation  and  growth  of  insti- 
tutions truly  democratic.  We  are  coming  to  see  more 
and  more  that  the  closely  related  personal  interests  of 
a  small  local  group  will  not  admit  of  the  judicial  atti- 
tude of  mind  on  the  part  of  those  in  authority  so  fun- 
damentally essential  to  successful  and  efficient  adminis- 
tration of  any  body  of  laws. 

12.    Reasons  for  Tendency  Toward  Centralized 
Control 

Thus  considered,  we  may  yet  come  to  realize  that  the 
participation  of  all  the  people,  in  the  sense  that  the 
dominant  thought  of  all  the  people  shall  become  effec- 
tive, may  be  just  as  truly  and  more  certainly  secured 
through  wise  delegation  of  authority  to  experts  than 
through  continuous  direct  control  by  means  of  the  direct 
election  of  local  boards  of  control.  One  of  the  interest- 
ing manifestations  of  this  idea  is  seen  in  the  movement 
for  the  commission  form  of  government  in  cities. 

From  what  has  already  been  said  about  the  genesis 
of  territorial  units  in  educational  administration  it  be- 
comes evident  that  development  of  control  in  this  re- 
spect has  been  from  the  local  toward  the  general  in  this 
country;  and  this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  educational 
ideals  have  usually  been  passed  down  in  just  the  oppo- 
site way.  In  our  consideration  of  administrative  con- 
trol we  shall  follow  the  order  of  the  historical  evolution 


y 


56  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

of  units  and  begin  with  the  district.  At  first  the  dis- 
trict unit  in  this  country  was  either  the  parish,  the 
county,  or  the  town.  As  population  grew  and  schools 
multiphed  the  parish  or  town  or  county  came  to  have 
several  schools.  These  communities  where  schools  were 
estabhshed  were  at  first  more  or  less  isolated  groups  in 
the  larger  units.  This  fact,  together  with  the  tendency 
toward  local  control  to  which  we  have  already  referred, 
led  to  the  division  of  parish  or  town  or  county  into 
districts  centring  about  the  schools  outside  of  the  cities. 
Even  as  cities  grew,  in  some  cases,  the  district  idea  pre- 
vailed either  wholly  or  in  part.  Where  the  prevalence 
was  complete  entirely  separate  districts  were  organized 
about  distinct  school  centres.  In  other  cities  the  divi- 
sion held  only  in  part,  resulting  in  "ward"  schools  and 
frequently  in  a  board  made  up  of  *'ward"  representa- 
tives. In  still  other  instances  the  entire  city  is  consid- 
ered the  district  containing  many  schools  open,  imder 
certain  restrictions,  to  the  choice  of  the  people.^ 

13.     Prevalence  of  Local  District  Control 

The  principle  involved  in  district  control,  whether  the 
district  be  large  or  small,  is  that  the  school  is  to  be  an 
institution  that  is  local  in  both  government  and  main- 
tenance.2  The  idea  is  a  very  popular  one.  People  may 
have  their  own  school  as  they  want  it.  They  provide 
their  own  grounds  and  building,  fix  the  programme  of 

^  Oakland,  Cal.,  is  an  interesting  illustration.  Here  pupils  go  to  the 
school  of  their  preference.  But  when  a  school  is  full  the  pupils  farthest 
away  from  the  school  must  seek  admittance  at  the  next  best  school  of 
their  choice  where  there  is  still  room  for  them.  This  plan  relieves  the 
board  and  superintendent  of  all  responsibility  as  to  transfers  on  accoxmt 
of  dissatisfaction  with  a  school. 

*  Not  true  in  cases  of  cities,  although  the  idea  sometimes  remains  in 
the  form  of  local  or  district  representation  on  the  city  board. 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT   OF  SCHOOLS  57 

studies,  employ  the  teachers — all  with  the  idea  in  view 
of  trying  to  satisfy  their  own  ideals  of  what  a  school 
should  be.  The  plan  throughout  the  States  in  this 
country  shows  a  striking  similarity  of  practice.  There 
is  a  local  board,  ordinarily  of  three  trustees  or  directors, 
who  levy  taxes,  build  schoolhouses,  furnish  supphes, 
employ  teachers,  select  or  approve  text-books,  and  de- 
termine the  course  of  instruction  and  rules  governing 
the  school.  In  some  of  the  States  these  powers  and 
duties  are  modified,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  by 
authority  reserved  by  law  to  ofiicers  of  the  township, 
county,  or  State. 

The  local  district  thus  organized  separately  for  the 
conduct  of  schools  prevails  in  one  form  or  another  in 
the  States  west  of  the  AUeghanies,  except  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio,  Indiana,  Tennessee,^  and  Louisiana.  At 
one  time  its  prevalence  was  general,  even  throughout 
New  England,  but  this  condition  has  since  been  changed. 
Connecticut  alone  now  continues  the  district  plan,  but 
that  only  in  part,  as  permissive.  Among  the  Western 
States  the  laws  of  Iowa,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minne- 
sota, and  North  and  South  Dakota  make  the  township 
system  permissive. 

14.     Changed  Conditions  Call  for  Consolidation 

It  is  easy  to  see  how,  in  pioneer  days,  when  people 
were  settled  in  groups  more  or  less  isolated,  the  district 
plan  should  be  the  convenient  one  for  the  organization 
of  schools.  But  with  the  growth  of  population  the  ne- 
cessity for  it,  at  least,  has  ceased  to  exist.  Aside  from 
the  difficulty  already  mentioned  of  our  inability  to  get 
that  judicial  attitude  in  local  control  so  essential  to  efl&- 
cient  administration,  the  utter  inadequacy  of  such  a 

*  In  this  State  the  districts  of  the  county  have  advisory  boards. 


58  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

system  in  securing  anything  like  equal  advantages  edu- 
cationally in  all  conmiunities  has  been  demonstrated 
over  and  over  again.  The  inequalities  in  adjoining  dis- 
tricts of  some  of  the  States  where  local  or  district  con- 
trol prevails  are  such  as  seriously  to  endanger  the  inter- 
ests of  neighboring  communities,  to  reduce,  relatively, 
the  value  of  farm  lands,  and  to  make  it  difficult  for  non- 
resident owners  of  farms  to  secure  desirable  tenants  for 
their  lands. 

Then,  again,  as  industrial  and  social  conditions  change 
the  school  population  becomes  very  small  in  many  dis- 
tricts. Under  the  control  of  boards  having  supervision 
of  larger  units  these  small  schools  might  readily  be  con- 
solidated, thus  greatly  economizing  in  the  aggregate 
cost  of  the  schools  of  such  larger  imit.  The  distribu- 
table funds  would  thus  be  more  effectively  applied  also, 
as  the  combined  amounts  would  make  pKJssible  better 
school  faciUties  for  all. 

Of  course,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  training  in 
self-government  which  this  local  control  of  schools  has 
brought  about  has  been  a  very  important  factor  in  de- 
veloping true  ideals  of  democracy;  but  in  this  day  of 
the  daily  press,  the  magazine,  rural  delivery  of  mails, 
and  all  forms  of  easy  and  direct  communication  the  need 
of  such  instrumentalities  in  the  training  of  popular  opin- 
ion has  largely  disappeared.  On  the  other  hand,  the  in- 
creasing demands  upon  our  schools  as  a  result  of  our 
rapid  development  in  industries  and  in  population  make 
it  imperative  that  we  practise  strict  economy  in  their 
organization.  We  have  already  seen  that  this  idea  of 
the  local  unit  of  control  grew  out  of  conditions  existing 
at  an  earlier  time.  There  is  no  good  reason  why,  as  con- 
ditions change,  there  should  not  be  complete  readjust- 
ment, from  time  to  time,  ip  order  to  adapt  the  control  to 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  SCHOOLS  59 

changing  requirements  due  to  the  evolution  of  our  social 
institutions  and  its  effect  on  education. 

15.    The  District  Tested  by  the  Three  Principles 

Let  us  apply  the  three  principles  previously  stated*  as 
leading  to  the  determination  of  the  unit  of  control. 
This  may  aid  us  in  judging  more  clearly  the  correctness 
of  the  claims  for  the  continuance  of  the  district  plan. 
As  a  convenient  limit  of  service  and  attendance  the  dis- 
trict is  and  doubtless  will  remain  most  desirable  in  many 
ways,  especially  as  it  concerns  elementary  education. 
But  districting  for  purposes  of  attendance  may  readily 
be  entirely  independent  of  the  area  of  control,  as  in  the 
case  of  cities.  Furthermore,  transfers  are  often  desir- 
able and  would  be  possible  under  an  administration  in- 
cluding more  than  the  one  school  unit.  It  frequently  oc- 
curs in  rural  communities  that  in  particular  cases  much 
better  conditions  for  regular  attendance  might  be  ar- 
ranged than  to  go  to  the  school  centre  of  a  given  district. 
The  possibility  of  consoHdation  and  transportation  of 
pupils  further  affects  this  same  argument.  It  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  even  in  the  light  of  this  first  and  most 
directly  applicable  principle  the  plea  for  district  control 
is  scarcely  tenable. 

The  case  is  still  more  unfavorable  to  the  district  plan 
when  we  apply  the  principle  of  public  maintenance  by 
the  inhabitants  in  general.  First  there  is  t.he  township 
fimd  arising  from  the  sale  of  school  lands;  then  there 
are  other  funds  produced  from  various  sources,  as  desig- 
nated in  the  laws  of  the  States,  and  especially  as  a  result 
of  direct  State  appropriations,  which  are  common  among 
the  States.  These  facts  of  themselves  are  sufficient 
ground  for  a  control  from  without  the  district;  for  in 
^Pp-  53-54- 


60  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

them  we  give  recognition  to  the  very  fundamental  fact 
that  schools  are  maintained  by  the  pubhc  in  general  for 
the  good  of  the  entire  social  group  and  not  for  the 
limited  number  who  happen  to  reside  to-day  in  a  given 
district.  The  evolution  of  our  industrial  methods  makes 
a  considerable  portion  of  our  population  migratory  in 
character  rather  than  permanent  dwellers  in  a  given 
community.  This  in  itself  makes  each  member  of  the 
social  group  about  equally  interested  in  the  educational 
well-being  of  all  the  other  members  regardless  of  any 
present  relationship  to  a  particular  locahty. 

The  third  principle  of  popular  participation  is,  as  has 
already  been  pointed  out,  the  strongest  reason  of  all 
for  maintaining  the  local  organization  and  control  rep- 
resented by  the  district  system.  We  have  already 
shown,  however,  the  manner  in  which  this  same  ideal 
of  participation  may  be  attained  through  the  delegation 
of  certain  rights,  through  representation,  to  the  larger 
units  of  population. 

1 6.     The  Township  Unit 

The  town  or  township  has  played  a  very  important 
part  in  educational  administration  in  the  United  States. 
The  beginning  of  this  influence  is  associated  with  the 
town  meeting  of  New  England,  although  its  extension 
throughout  the  country  has  been  in  forms  varying  con- 
siderably from  the  New  England  type.  In  the  latter 
case  the  organization  is  a  much  closer  one  and  the 
town  has  held  a  more  important  significance  pohtically.^ 
As  we  have  seen,  the  township  was  for  a  time  superseded 
in  New  England  by  the  district  for  the  purpose  of  local 
school  government;  but  later  the  town  system  has  been 

'  See  Fairlie,  "Local  Government  in  Counties,  Towns,  and  Villages," 
The  Century  Co.,  New  York,  1906,  pp.  i6o-i6i. 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  SCHOOLS  61 

completely  restored  in  four  of  the  States  and  partially 
in  the  other  two.  In  these  States,  therefore,  this  unit 
becomes  the  basis  for  the  local  administration  of  schools 
which  is  in  the  hands  of  a  school  committee.  This  com- 
mittee levies  the  local  tax,  builds  schoolhouses,  employs 
teachers,  and  makes  rules  and  regulations  governing  the 
schools  of  the  town.  In  case  it  is  found  desirable  a 
superintendent  may  also  be  employed. 

The  following  summary  of  the  advantages  of  the  New 
England  system  as  typified  in  Massachusetts  is  given 
by  Dean  T.  M.  Balliet,  of  New  York  City  University:^ 

"i.  Uniformity  of  text-books.  2.  The  hiring  of  teach- 
ers by  the  town  committee,  which  is  less  influenced 
by  local  sentiment  than  a  district  committee  or  a  pru- 
dential committeeman  would  be.  3.  The  erecting  of 
better  schoolhouses.  When  the  town  as  a  whole  must 
pay  for  the  erecting  of  a  schoolhouse,  the  very  jealousy 
which  the  district  system  develops  prompts  people  to 
demand  better  schoolhouses  than  they  themselves  would 
be  willing  to  pay  for.  In  most  towns  there  is  a  village 
in  which  most  of  the  taxable  property  is  found.  The 
rural  sections  of  the  town,  therefore,  benefit  by  voting 
a  higher  tax  for  schoolhouses  by  which  the  people  of  the 
village  must  contribute  to  the  cost  of  schoolhouses  in 
the  rural  districts.  4.  Supervision  of  schools  by  experts 
is  made  possible.  While  the  rural  schools  of  Massa- 
chusetts up  to  1888  had  poorer  supervision  than  the 
schools  of  the  Middle  States  and  many  of  the  Western 
States,  where  county-supervision  has  prevailed  for  many 
years,  since  1888  there  has  been  developed  in  Massachu- 
setts a  system  of  town  supervision  which  is  probably  the 
best  system  of  supervision  of  rural  schools  in  the  coun- 
try.    Under  this  system  two  or  three  towns  which  are 

'  Bulletin  No.  33,  New  York  State  Educational  Department,  p.  37. 


62  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

too  poor  individually  to  pay  a  superintendent  may  com- 
bine and  engage  a  superintendent  in  common.  All  towns 
also  receive  some  aid  from  the  State  to  make  up  the 
salary  of  the  superintendent.  This  law  was  originally 
permissive;  in  1892  it  was  made  compulsory.  As  early 
as  1869  a  law  was  passed  permitting  towns  to  pay  for 
the  transportation  of  pupils  from  thinly  settled  sections 
to  the  more  densely  settled  sections.  In  this  way  pro- 
vision was  made  for  the  gradual  concentration  of  the 
schools  of  thinly  settled  towns.  This  law  was  a  neces- 
sary accompaniment  to  the  later  law  abolishing  the  dis- 
trict system  and  paved  the  way  for  the  final  abolition." 
In  some  of  the  Central  and  West  Central  States  the 
township  organization  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  of 
New  England,  although  there  is  nowhere  found  the  same 
political  importance  attaching  to  this  unit.^  The  sys- 
tem is  general  in  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and 
Indiana,  and  permissive  in  Iowa,  the  upper  peninsula 
of  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  North  and 
South  Dakota.  In  all  these  cases  the  township  control 
of  schools  is  vested  in  a  board,  usually  of  three,  known 
as  directors  or  trustees.  In  Indiana  one  trustee  serves 
alone. 

17.     Township  Units  Tested 

If  we  again  apply  our  three  principles  as  tests  we  shall 
obtain  results  somewhat  more  satisfactory.  The  con- 
trolling body  is  more  removed,  as  Dean  BalUet  has 
shown,  from  the  influence  of  local  prejudice.  The  ser- 
vice of  the  school  is  hkely  to  be  improved.  This  unit 
conforms  more  closely  to  the  general  plan  for  the  dis- 
tribution of  funds,  as  recognized  by  the  States  and  also 
by  the  federal  appropriation  of  lands.    Through  it,  also, 

1  Fairlie,  op.  cit.,  pp.  182-85. 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF   SCHOOLS  63 

the  State  receives  statistical  reports  concerning  schools. 
At  the  same  time  the  miit  is  not  so  large  but  that  the 
people  may  participate  in  such  matters  of  local  interest 
as  are  really  important  with  regard  to  the  essentials  of 
a  good  school. 

In  some  cases  where  there  is  no  regular  township 
organization  the  civil  township  is  recognized  as  a  unit 
for  the  organization  and  administration  of  high  schools. 
Where  this  is  true  a  separate  board  is  usually  elected 
which  has  control  over  the  township  school  with  powers 
and  duties  similar  to  those  of  the  district.  Such  a  pro- 
vision is  found  in  the  laws  of  Illinois.  This  provision  is 
usually  optional  and  subject  to  a  vote  by  the  people  of 
the  township.  The  plan  works  well  in  IlKnois,  and  some 
of  the  strongest  and  most  efficient  high  schools  in  the 
State  have  thus  been  estabHshed.  A  similar  plan  is  in 
operation  in  California  under  the  union  high  school  law. 
Here,  also,  it  has  proven  a  great  success.  The  CaUfor- 
nia  plan  is,  perhaps,  the  most  highly  perfected  of  all, 
since  all  non-high -school  territory  is  required  to  con- 
tribute enough  to  pay  the  tuition  in  these  union  high 
schools  of  all  pupils  from  such  territory  as  desire  to  at- 
tend high  school.  Thus  in  Cahfornia  the  high  school 
is  a  universally  free  school. 

The  chief  difficulty  in  putting  this  plan  in  operation 
is  found  in  the  ultra-conservative  attitude  of  the  holders 
of  farm  lands,  especially  of  the  non-resident  class,  with 
reference  to  the  added  tax  entailed  by  such  a  plan.  In 
many  instances  this  results  in  an  absolute  repudiation  of 
the  fundamental  American  idea  that  the  school  should 
be  free  to  all  classes  and  as  a  common  charge  upon  all 
property  or  other  sources  of  taxation  which  a  State  may 
designate.  In  this  respect  conditions  are  much  worse  in 
a  State  Uke  Illinois  than  in  California,  for  the  reason 


64  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

that  in  the  latter  State  much  of  the  population  is  recent, 
and  tradition  has  not  gained  so  strong  a  hold  upon  the 
leaders  of  public  sentiment. 

In  Indiana  the  idea  of  the  township  school  as  a  means 
chiefly  of  supplying  high-school  privileges  to  rural  dis- 
tricts has  prevailed.  A  large  number  of  these  rural  high 
schools  have  been  estabhshed,  many  of  them  on  a  good 
working  basis.  But  most  of  them  are  small  and  incap- 
able of  becoming  the  strong,  fully  organized  schools 
needed  in  order  to  offer  equal  values  in  education  to 
all  classes  and  conditions. 

The  idea  of  the  township  as  a  unit  developed  in  New 
England,  where  township  meant  a  settlement  of  people 
about  a  common  centre  or  village.  In  the  West,  imder 
the  congressional  survey,  a  township  means  a  geometrical 
figure  not  necessarily  related  to  population  and  there- 
fore to  schools  needed  in  a  given  case.  It  is  rather  curi- 
ous that  this  fact  has  so  long  escaped  attention  in  the 
campaigns  that  have  been  made  in  various  States  of 
the  West  for  the  establishment  of  the  township  unit  of 
control  in  administering  schools.  The  union-district 
idea,  noticeable  in  several  sections,  but  most  successfully 
used  in  California,  marks  the  first  complete  breaking 
away  from  the  mathematical  township  and  returning 
to  the  idea  of  centres  of  population  as  a  basis  for  such 
co-operative  control  and  support  of  schools.  More  re- 
cent legislation  in  Illinois,  in  191 1,  has  produced  a  great 
change  in  conditions  and  possibilities  in  that  State. 
Under  this  law  the  number  of  union-district  (township) 
high  schools  has  increased  more  than  fifty  per  cent  in 
two  years. 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  SCHOOLS  65 

i8.     The  City  as  a  Unit  of  Control 

The  city  as  a  unit  follows  the  same  general  plan  for 
the  purposes  of  education  as  does  a  township.^  There 
is  a  central  board,  usually  much  larger  than  that  of  the 
township,  having  the  direction  of  schools,  including  the 
levying  of  taxes,  the  building  and  equipment  of  school- 
houses,  the  selection  of  text-books  and  other  supplies, 
the  employment  of  teachers  and  supervisors,  and  in  many 
cases  also  the  certification  of  teachers.  In  cases  where 
cities  still  remain  divided  into  separate  and  independent 
districts  the  general  plan  of  organization  is  about  the 
same  for  the  separate  district  as  for  the  entire  city  in 
unified  city  systems.  The  denser  population  of  cities 
and  the  peculiar  interests  which  centre  there  make  it 
imperative  that  they  have  a  certain  autonomy  in  the 
administration  of  schools.  This  point  is  very  generally 
conceded  in  the  organization  of  city  schools.  There  are 
a  few  cases,  however,  where  the  district  for  control  of 
large  city  systems  includes  the  entire  county.  Balti- 
more, Mobile,  San  Francisco  are  illustrations. 

19.     County  Units 

The  county,"  like  the  township,  is  treated  quite  dif- 
ferently in  its  relation  to  school  administration  in  differ- 
ent sections  of  the  country.  In  some  of  the  States  of 
the  South  and  Far  West  it  is  made  the  local  unit  for  ad- 

'  See  F.  J.  Goodnow,  "  City  Government  in  the  United  States,"  The 
Century  Co.,  New  York,  1904,  pp.  262-271.  Also  Button  and  Snedden, 
"Administration  of  Public  Education  in  the  United  States,"  New  York, 
1908,  pp.  120-143. 

2  Fairlie,  op.  cii.,  pp.  187-199.  Also  Button  and  Snedden,  op.  cit.,  pp. 
75-85.  See  also  Illinois  Educational  Com.,  Final  Report,  1909,  pp. 
55-96- 


66  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

ministrative  purposes.  Such  States  are  California,  Flor- 
ida, Georgia,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Maryland,  North 
Carolina,  Oregon,  South  Carohna,  Tennessee.  In  most 
of  these  cases  a  county  board  has  general  charge  of 
school  affairs,  and  trustees,  directors,  or  supervisors  of 
the  schools  report  to  this  board,  and  in  some  cases  re- 
ceive full  instruction  from  them  as  to  the  local  conduct 
of  schools. 

Besides  the  above  States,  all  of  which  have  some  form 
of  county  supervision,  thirty-one  other  States  recognize 
the  county  unit  in  administration  by  providing  for 
county  supervision,  while  twenty  others  have  some  form 
of  county  board  of  education.  Through  the  Central 
West,  especially,  the  oflSce  of  county  superintendent 
usually  carries  with  it  very  important  powers  and  duties. 
He  inspects  schools;  examines  and  frequently  is  the  sole 
authority  for  certificating  and  revoking  certificates  of 
teachers;  requires  reports  of  township  officials;  deter- 
mines disputes  in  regard  to  district  boundaries,  etc.; 
holds  teachers'  institutes;  apportions  State  funds  to  the 
schools.  He  is  elected  to  office  by  the  people  or  chosen 
by  the  county  board  or  appointed  by  the  State  board 
of  education. 

In  a  few  States  the  county  is  made  a  unit  for  the 
establishment  of  high  schools,  usually  at  the  option  of 
the  people,  or  for  the  establishment  of  special  funds  for 
aid  to  high  schools.  In  some  of  the  Southern  States 
strong  county  high  schools  are  developing  under  the 
fostering  care  of  the  General  Education  Board.  As  has 
been  suggested  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  the  county 
is  also  made  one  of  the  important  units  for  the  training 
of  teachers  in  service  through  the  county  institute. 

In  some  of  the  States  county  funds  have  been  estab- 
lished the  income  from  which  is  made  distributable  for 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF   SCHOOLS  67 

school  purposes,  as  in  the  case  of  townships  and  the 
State  funds.  This  plan  is  in  operation  in  Nebraska  and 
Kansas. 

20.    The  Same  Tests  Applied  to  the  County  Unit 

When  we  apply  the  principles  by  which  we  have  tested 
the  district  plan  the  county  unit  seems  to  meet  the  idea 
of  convenience  in  service  only  in  the  case  of  sparsely 
settled  sections,  and  then  only  for  the  establishment  of 
more  advanced  education,  as  in  the  case  of  county  high 
schools.  In  the  matter  of  maintenance,  aside  from  cer- 
tain functions  of  co-operation  with  the  State,  this  inter- 
est in  counties  is  also  practically  limited  to  such  high 
schools  and  teachers'  institutes  as  have  been  already 
mentioned.  In  a  similar  maimer  participation  in  con- 
trol is  hmited  except  as  powers  and  duties  are  delegated 
to  the  county  superintendent  and  to  the  county  board 
of  education.  It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  in  these  lat- 
ter functions  county  administration  is  destined  to  ad- 
vance in  importance.  The  county  board  should  readily 
become  a  very  important  factor  in  the  carrying  forward 
of  our  educational  development.  In  the  first  place,  such 
a  board  is  needed  for  the  selection  of  the  county  super- 
intendent. It  should  also  provide  for  the  districting  of 
the  coimty  for  high-school  purposes,  and  might  well  have 
authority  to  take  the  initiative  in  the  establishment  of 
additional  high  schools  when  needed,  so  that  all  chil- 
dren of  proper  age  might  have  the  advantages  of  free 
high-school  education.  Such  boards  might  also  readily 
become  the  agents  for  distributing  State  fimds,  where 
granted,  for  aid  to  specific  types  of  education. 


68  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

21.     The  State  Considered  as  a  Unit 

As  a  unit  of  school  administration  that  of  the  State^ 
presents  some  very  interesting  features.  We  have  al- 
ready found  that  most  of  the  constitutions  provide  for 
some  form  of  State  supervision.  Under  the  legislative 
enactments  of  States  all  make  provision  for  supervision, 
and  all  but  one,  Delaware,  provide  for  an  executive 
school  officer  known  in  general  as  the  superintendent  of 
education  or  instruction.  The  first  State  to  make  such 
provision  was  New  York,  in  1812,  and  the  first  superin- 
tendent imder  that  provision  was  Gideon  Hawley,  elected 
in  1813. 

Other  States  have  followed  until  in  one  way  or  an- 
other all  are  included.  In  Massachusetts,  Connecticut, 
and  Delaware  the  secretary  of  the  State  board  of  edu- 
cation is  the  executive  and  supervisory  officer.  In  the 
last-named  State  this  secretary  is  the  auditor  who  acts 
ex  officio.  In  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  some  other 
States  the  title  is  that  of  commissioner,  variously  phrased 
as  of  education  or  of  public  schools. 

The  powers  and  duties  of  this  office  vary  greatly  in 
different  States.  In  general  they  may  be  said  to  be 
either  advisory  and  judicial  or  generally  administra- 
tive. These  functions  are  most  extensive  in  New  York, 
where  the  commissioner  of  education  has  large  discre- 
tion and  control.  From  this  the  character  of  the  office 
dwindles  to  practically  an  advisory  function  coupled 
with  clerical  and  statistical  duties.  In  most  of  the  States 
the  influence  of  this  official  upon  educational  ideals  and 
standards  and  upon  their  expression  in  legislation  has 
been  far-reaching  and  profound. 

'  See  Fairlie,  op.  cit.,  pp.  215-224.  Also  Dutton  and  Snedden,  op.  cU.f 
pp.  55-72.     Also  Illinois  Educational  Com.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  15-54. 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF   SCHOOLS  69 

Among  the  most  important  administrative  functions 
assigned  to  the  State  superintendent  are:  the  supervi- 
sion of  school  ofl&cials;  the  apportionment  of  school 
funds;  the  issuing  and  revoking  of  State  teachers'  cer- 
tificates; the  holding  of  conventions  of  county  and  city 
superintendents;  the  making  of  an  annual  or  biennial 
report;  a  general  stimulative  supervision  of  the  whole 
system  of  schools.  He  is  also  frequently  made  an 
ex-qfficio  member  of  boards  of  control  of  State  educa- 
tional institutions. 

Another  very  important  administrative  provision  for 
State  systems  of  education  is  that  of  a  State  board  of 
education.  Thirty-three  of  the  States  already  have 
some  such  provision,  and  several  other  States  are  con- 
sidering the  matter.  These  boards  vary  considerably 
as  to  their  composition,  terms  of  office,  and  powers  and 
duties.  In  general  their  function  is  to  support  and  co- 
operate with  the  superintendent  in  (i)  certificating 
teachers,  (2)  supervising  schools,  (3)  supervising  and 
appointing  subordinate  or  local  school  officials,  (4)  pre- 
paring and  issuing  uniform  courses  of  study.  In  some 
cases  they  are  called  upon  to  apportion  funds  for  special 
aid  to  public  schools.  In  a  few  instances  the  State 
board  appoints  the  superintendent. 

The  perfect  type  for  such  a  board  seems  not,  as  yet, 
to  have  been  evolved.  Doubtless,  differences  will  always 
be  found  necessary,  or  at  least  desirable,  in  different 
localities.  But  the  need  of  such  an  instrumentality  in 
the  managing  of  school  systems  seems  to  be  thoroughly 
estabhshed. 

In  this  connection  may  be  mentioned  those  special 
boards,  already  alluded  to,  which  have  the  direction  of 
affairs  for  State  educational  institutions,  such  as  normal 
schools,  colleges,  and  universities.     Here,  again,  great  va- 


70  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

riety  of  treatment  occurs.  In  some  cases,  perhaps  more 
commonly,  each  separate  institution  has  its  governing 
board  of  trustees,  regents,  or  overseers.  In  other  cases, 
where  there  are  several  institutions  of  a  kind,  such  as 
normal  schools,  these  may  all  be  placed  under  one  board, 
as  in  Minnesota.  Still  another  disposition  of  the  matter 
is  that  of  Iowa  and  Kansas,  where  all  the  different 
institutions — normal  school,  college,  and  university — are 
placed  under  one  and  the  same  board  of  control. 

Here  we  are  facing  a  problem  of  administration  which 
is  as  yet  not  clearly  defined.  Just  what  is  to  be  the 
ultimate  relation  of  such  State  institutions  and  of  all 
these  to  the  State  department  of  education  is  a  matter 
for  careful  consideration. 

22.    National  Control  and  Influence 

Under  present  conditions  there  is  httle  beyond  the 
separate  States  which  could  be  said  to  represent  a  nation- 
wide imit  of  control.  The  Bureau  of  Education  and  the 
Departments  of  State  and  the  Interior  represent  all  that 
is  of  a  supervisory  character.  The  MiUtary  Academy  at 
West  Point,  with  the  auxiliary  service  and  post  schools, 
and  the  Naval  School  at  AnnapoUs,  the  Naval  War  College 
of  Rhode  Island,  and  the  naval  training  stations  of  Rhode 
Island,  the  Great  Lakes,  and  Cahfornia  represent  a  fairly 
national  type  of  educational  administration.  The  va- 
rious commissioners  having  in  charge  the  education  of 
the  Indians  and  education  in  Porto  Rico  and  the  Phil- 
ippines also  come  very  near  to  representing  the  same 
thing.  But  there  is  nothing,  unless  it  be  mihtary  train- 
ing, which  can  in  any  sense  be  considered  a  national 
system  from  the  standpoint  of  administrative  control. 
It  is  true  that  the  District  of  Columbia,  including  the 
city  of  Washington,  is  under  national  control,  as  a  part 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF   SCHOOLS  71 

of  the  national  domain,  both  as  to  legislation  for  and 
administration  of  education.  But  this  can  in  no  sense 
be  considered  a  national  system. 

Probably  at  no  point  has  the  National  Government 
come  so  near  to  the  exercise  of  definite  control  over  edu- 
cational interests  in  States  as  in  the  case  of  the  more 
recent  subsidies  granted  to  State  institutions  in  aid  of 
agricultural  education.  In  this  instance  a  definite  super- 
vision is  exercised.  Perhaps  it  is  not  putting  it  too 
strongly  to  say  that  the  tendency  is  definitely  toward 
such  federal  supervision  in  as  far  as  the  character  and 
purpose  of  the  aid  granted  by  Congress  seem  to  re- 
quire. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  SCHOOLS  (CONTINUED). 
TYPES  OF  SCHOOLS  SET  UP 

We  may  pass,  then,  to  the  system  and  types  of  schools 
set  up,  either  separately  or  co-operatively,  by  the  vari- 
ous units  of  control  which  we  have  described.  Before 
proceeding  directly  to  an  analysis  of  these  tjqjes,  and  of 
such  system  as  they  may  represent  when  considered  as 
a  whole,  let  us  estabUsh  in  our  minds,  as  far  as  may  be 
done  at  this  time,  those  principles  upon  which  a  system 
of  education  in  a  democracy  may  be  said  to  rest  and 
which,  therefore,  will  furnish  the  criteria  by  which  to 
measure  and  test  the  various  elements  in  the  present 
situation. 

1.    Principles  by  Which  We  May  Measure  and  Test 
Our  School  System 

All  men  who  have  spoken  authoritatively  upon  the 
subject  have  agreed  as  to  what  may  readily  be  set  down 
as  first  among  these  principles:  the  inteUigence  of  the 
people  of  a  democracy  must  be  sufficient  to  insure  a  wise 
direction  of  the  government  and  of  the  economic  affairs 
of  society  under  such  laws  and  rules  of  conduct  as  the 
people,  through  their  representatives  or  by  direct  choice, 
may  impose.  Such  intelUgence  involves  not  only  knowl- 
edge of  principles,  of  men,  and  of  institutions,  but  also 
that  wisdom  for  the  direction  of  personal  conduct  which 
we  have  in  mind  when  we  speak  of  moraUty.     It  includes 

72 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF   SCHOOLS  73 

not  only  this  wisdom  and  knowledge,  but  also  that  in- 
dustrial intelUgence  and  skill  necessary  to  the  efficient 
conduct  of  the  ordinary  business  of  life  in  a  large  social 
group. 

After  centuries  of  experience,  coming  down  through 
many  changes  in  national  ideals  and  in  the  mechanism 
of  government,  the  school  has  been  set  up  and  recognized 
as  the  only  institution  which  society  may  maintain  at 
pubUc  expense  and  solely  for  the  purpose  of  insuring, 
among  all  classes,  that  intelUgence,  wisdom,  and  skill 
thus  agreed  upon  as  necessary  to  the  security  and  per- 
petuity of  government  in  a  democracy.  The  second  prin- 
ciple involved  is  therefore  expressed  in  the  aim  of  edu- 
cation as  thus  provided  by  society.  This  aim  may  be 
stated  as  being  the  formal  effort  of  society  to  secure  in 
its  members  the  greatest  degree  of  efficiency  in  intellect, 
in  morals,  and  in  industrial  skill  and  intelligence,  both 
individually  and  collectively,  of  which  these  members 
are  capable. 

Schools,  to  be  successful,  need  to  be  of  different  types. 
They  should  adapt  themselves  to  the  different  stages  of 
development,  the  varying  tastes  and  inclinations  of  indi- 
viduals, as  well  as  the  various  social  needs  in  the  way 
of  specially  trained  experts  in  different  departments  of 
life.  This  gives  us  a  third  principle :  the  schools  estab- 
lished by  society,  in  order  to  conform  to  the  social  aim 
of  education,  should  represent  such  variety  of  type  as, 
on  the  one  hand,  to  appeal  to  different  stages  of  develop- 
ment and  to  different  capacities  of  individuals,  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  to  meet  the  need  of  society  for  specially 
trained  experts. 

In  doing  this  society  is  confronted  by  certain  limita- 
tions. The  resources  available  for  this  work  are  limited. 
There  is  also  a  time  limit,  both  because  society  must 


ADMINISTRATION  OF   EDUCATION 

continue  its  institutional  existence,  which  we  have  seen 
to  be,  in  the  case  of  a  democracy,  dependent  upon  gen- 
eral intelligence,  wisdom;  and  skill,  and  because  the 
time  which  the  individual  may  give  to  the  process  of 
being  educated  is  also  limited.  Another  vitally  impor- 
tant principle  involved  is  that  of  the  conservation  of 
the  health  of  children  and  youth.  To  succeed  in  the 
educative  process  there  is  need  of  the  utmost  freedom 
from  both  chronic  ailments  and  the  prevailing  conta- 
gions of  this  period  of  life.  The  fourth  principle,  there- 
fore, is  that  economic  treatment  of  the  problem  of  gen- 
eral education  with  reference  to  the  above-mentioned 
conditions  which  is  necessary  to  its  ultimate  success. 

At  the  same  time,  several  general  sociological  condi- 
tions are  to  be  considered,  any  one  of  which  might  stand 
in  the  way  of  efficiency  on  the  part  of  the  schools  if  the 
organization  of  education  did  not  look  to  the  prevention 
of  such  a  result.  Among  these  is  the  probable  failure  of 
part  of  the  social  group,  if  left  to  themselves,  in  requir- 
ing the  yoimg  to  take  advantage  of  the  opportunities 
offered  for  education.  Such  failure  may  arise  either  on 
account  of  economic  pressure  or  because  of  a  too  low 
estimate  of  the  value  and  necessity  of  education  when 
left  to  individual  standards  of  judgment.  This  gives 
us  a  basis  for  the  statement  of  a  fifth  principle,  which  is 
that  society  must  require  of  such  delinquents,  by  legal 
compulsion,  that  their  children  be  kept  in  school. 

Stated  in  brief,  the  five  leading  principles  by  which 
we  may  test  the  educational  system  thus  far  established 
are: 

1.  Intelligence,  skill,  and  right  condttct  on  the  part  of  a 
people,  subject  to  certain  individual  limitations,  are  funda- 
mentally essential  in  a  democracy. 

2.  It  is  the  aim  of  society,  through  the  public  sclwol  as  a 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF   SCHOOLS         /  7J 

Special  instrumentality,  to  insure  in  all  the  people  the 
greatest  degree  of  efficiency,  physically,  intellectually,  mor- 
ally, and  industrially,  of  which  they  are  individually  and 
collectively  capable. 

3.  Schools,  to  be  efficient,  must  be  varied  in  type  to  the 
end  that  they  may  provide  for  individual  differences  in 
capacity  and  in  stages  of  development  and  also  for  the  va- 
ried needs  of  society  in  the  way  of  trained  service. 

4.  The  situation  demands  the  most  economic  treatment 
of  the  problem  of  education,  financially,  in  the  matter  of 
time,  and  also  in  health  conditions,  that  is  consistent  with 
its  most  effective  administration. 

5.  In  order  to  insure  the  general  effectiveness  of  such  a 
system  society  must,  by  legal  compulsion  if  necessary,  see 
to  it  that  parents  keep  their  children  in  school  long  enough 
to  enable  them,  within  the  range  of  their  capabilities,  to 
get  at  least  the  minimum  of  knowledge,  wisdom,  and  skill 
necessary  to  the  highest  good  of  the  individual  and  the 
well-being  of  the  State. 

2.     Components  of  Our  National  System  of 
Education 

In  its  main  features  the  system  which  has  grown 
up  throughout  the  States  under  the  control  scheme 
which  we  have  already  reviewed  is  homogeneous  enough 
to  be  considered  national.  It  includes  practically  all 
known  varieties  of  school,  such  as  kindergarten,  elemen- 
tary school,  high  school,  industrial  schools  which  com- 
prise schools  of  agriculture  and  trade-schools;  con- 
tinuation schools,  including  night-schools;  vacation- 
schools,  manual  training-schools,  nautical  schools,  mili- 
tary schools,  technical  schools,  normal  schools,  colleges, 
and  universities.  There  are  also  schools  maintained  at 
public  expense  for  the  education  of  defectives,  such  as 


76  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

the  deaf,  blind,  and  feeble-minded;  and  also  for  delin- 
quents there  are  industrial  reform  schools. 

3.    Kindergartens  and  Elementary  Schools 

The  kindergarten  occurs  chiefly  in  the  cities.  It  is 
organized  on  the  basis  of  Froebel's  "gift's,"  with  songs 
and  plays,  and  is  usually  open  to  children  from  three 
to  six  years  old.  About  four  hundred  cities,  in  1909-10, 
reported  kindergartens,  for  which  about  six  thousand 
teachers  were  employed.  The  number  of  these  schools 
seems  to  be  increasing,  and  an  aggressive  campaign  for 
the  establishment  of  kindergartens  has  been  going  on 
in  recent  years.  In  1909  was  incorporated  the  National 
Association  for  the  Promotion  of  Kindergarten  Educa- 
tion. This  organization  will  urge  kindergarten  legisla- 
tion and  distribute  Uterature  on  the  subject. 

The  elementary  school  is  the  most  commonly  distrib- 
uted of  all  t3^es  and  is  the  first  school  which  the  vast 
majority  of  children  attend.  In  this  type  education 
may  therefore  be  said  to  have  become  universal.  The 
minimum  school  age  is  five  to  six  years,  and  the  stand- 
ard length  of  the  course  is  eight  years,  thus  permitting 
the  child  to  finish  normally  at  fourteen.  There  are  some 
variations  from  this  both  ways.  In  New  England,  New 
York,  and  some  other  cases  more  isolated  the  period  is 
nine  years,  while  in  the  case  of  a  few  cities  it  is  only 
seven.  A  more  recent  and  very  interesting  variation 
from  the  customary  extent  of  this  period  is  the  six-year 
elementary  plan  followed  by  an  intermediate  period  of 
three  or  four  years.  Such  a  plan  is  now  in  operation 
in  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  and  in  Gary,  Ind.  The  length 
of  the  school  year  varies  greatly.  The  general  average 
for  the  United  States  in  1908-9^  was  155.3  days.  The 
*  For  statistics,  see  U.  S.  Com.  Report,  1910,  vol.  II. 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF   SCHOOLS  77 

longest  year  was  in  Rhode  Island,  194  days,  and  the 
shortest  in  South  Carolina,  98  days. 

About  480,000  teachers  are  employed  in  the  elementary 
schools  of  the  United  States.  A  very  large  percentage 
of  these  are  women,  and  the  tenure  of  service  is  short. 
Most  of  them  enter  upon  the  work  without  any  special 
preparation  in  the  way  of  professional  training.  What 
skill  they  acquire  in  presentation  and  management  they 
must  get  in  service. 

4.    High  Schools 

The  public  high  school  is  the  secondary  school  of  this 
system.  It  includes  the  four  years  succeeding  the  ele- 
mentary school,  or  normally  from  about  fourteen  to 
eighteen  years  of  age.  This  would  be  seen  to  vary  un- 
der such  plans  as  those  cited  above.  According  to  the 
reports  of  1909-10^  there  were  10,213  high  schools,  em- 
ploying 41,667  teachers,  of  whom  18,890  were  .men 
and  22,777  women.  The  total  enrollment  in  these  high 
schools  was  915,061,  of  which  398,525  were  boys  and 
516,536  girls.  Of  the  total  number  of  high  schools 
6,421  report  four-year  courses.  These  four-year  high 
schools  enroll  over  88  per  cent  of  the  secondary  students. 
Of  the  total  number  of  students  for  1909-10,  12.17  per 
cent  graduated,  and  of  these  graduates  about  one  third, 
or  4.6  per  cent  of  all,  prepared  for  college. 

5.     Statistical  Summary 

Taking  both  elementary  and  high  schools  together,  the 
public  schools  enrolled  72.22  per  cent  of  the  total  school 
population  in  1908-9  as  against  61.45  P^^^  cent  in  1870-1. 
The  total  number  of  teachers  employed  was  506,453, 
of  which  108,300  were  men  and  398,153  women.     This 

^  See  U.  S.  Com.  Report,  1910,  vol.  II,  p.  1131. 


78  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

makes  the  per  cent  of  men  teachers  21.4.  The  average 
monthly  wages  of  these  teachers  was  $57.  For  men  it 
was  $63.39  and  for  women  $50.08.  The  total  expendi- 
tures for  the  same  year  for  public  schools  were  $401,- 
397,747,  of  which  $237,013,913  was  for  salaries  of  teach- 
ers and  superintendents. 

6.    Higher  Education 

Of  the  602  universities,  colleges,  and  technological 
schools  of  college  rank  reporting  in  19 10,  89  are  controlled 
by  States  or  municipalities.  There  were  enrolled  in  the 
collegiate  departments  of  these  89  institutions,  47,492 
men  and  16,724  women,  or  a  total  of  64,216.  In  the  grad- 
uate departments  were  enrolled  2,427  men  and  983 
women,  or  a  total  of  3,410.  This  makes  a  grand  total  of 
67,626  enrolled.  These  institutions  are  distributed  as 
follows:  37  States  and  i  city  (Cincinnati)  support  uni- 
versities; 5  States  and  2  cities  (New  York  and  Philadel- 
phia) provide  colleges;  19  States  have  separate  colleges 
of  agriculture  or  of  agriculture  and  mechanic  arts;  there 
are  4  State  schools  of  mines  and  4  State  technological 
schools  of  college  grade.  South  Carolina  and  Virginia 
each  supports  a  military  school  of  college  rank,  while 
Delaware  and  North  Carohna  have  colleges  for  colored 
students,'  that  in  the  latter  State  being  a  college  of  agri- 
culture and  mechanic  arts.  A  number  of  States  make 
the  agricultural  college  a  part  of  the  State  imiversity. 
These  were  not  enumerated  in  the  19  given  above.  In 
the  case  of  Ohio  3  institutions  are  designated  as  univer- 
sities, while  in  the  case  of  Virginia  there  are  3  State  col- 
leges, including  William  and  Mary's  College,  in  addition 
to  the  university  and  miUtary  institute.  In  Mississippi 
2  colleges  of  agriculture  are  maintained  by  the  State. 

It  thus  becomes  evident  that  the  country  at  large 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF   SCHOOLS  79 

and  the  Federal  Government,  through  its  land-grant 
policy  and  its  appropriation  of  funds  for  training  and 
experimenting  in  agriculture,  are  thoroughly  committed 
to  thfe  idea  of  higher  education  as  a  function  of  the  State. 
In  many  of  the  States  this  ideal  of  public  education 
manifests  itself  not  only  in  the  lines  of  agriculture  and 
engineering,  but  also  in  the  study  of  civic  and  industrial 
problems,  in  law,  medicine,  public  sanitation,  and  educa- 
tion, as  well  as  in  arts,  letters,  and  philosophy. 

7.    Industrial  Education 

Under  industrial  education  we  may  group  all  those 
schools,  not  of  college  rank,  by  means  of  which  training 
is  offered,  at  public  expense,  in  trades,  in  agriculture, 
and  in  domestic  arts  and  sciences.  According  to  the 
reports  given^  there  are  about  forty-nine  such  institu- 
tions in  the  United  States,  with  a  tendency  to  rapidly 
increase  the  number.  Of  these  the  agricultural  type 
predominates,  with  a  few  trade-schools  and  one  nautical 
school.  Continuation  schools^  are  a  form  of  trade-school 
usually  conducted  at  night,  or  if  conducted  in  the  day- 
time the  daily  programme  is  arranged  so  as  to  permit 
a  division  of  time  between  work  and  study  hours,  for 
those  who  attend.  There  are  also  about  thirty-three 
manual-training  and  technical  high  schools  under  public 
control,  as  reported  for  the  same  year.  These  schools 
offer  a  general  education  with  manual  training  as  one 
of  the  principal  exercises.  In  a  few  cases  only  do  these 
schools  undertake  any  work  which  may  be  classed  strictly 
as  vocational. 

Besides  these,  six  commercial  high  schools,  together 

^U.  S.  Com.  Report,  1910,  vol.  II,  pp.  1219-32. 
''See  xinder  "Nomenclature,"  U.  S.  Com.  Report,  1910,  vol.  I,  pp. 
94-96. 


80  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

with  commercial  departments  in  other  high  schools,  en- 
rolled a  total  of  81,249  pupils,  over  one-half  of  the  num- 
ber being  in  the  North  Atlantic  division  and  about  81.5 
per  cent  in  the  North  Atlantic  and  North  Central  divi- 
sions. 

8.    Normal  Schools 

There  were  in  the  United  States,  in  1910,  196  public 
normal  schools,^  enroUing  79,546  students,  or  an  average 
of  about  406  per  school.  At  the  same  time  694  public 
high  schools  offering  professional  courses  for  teachers 
enrolled  in  these  courses  13,641  students,  thus  making  a 
total  of  93,187  pursuing  teachers'  professional  courses  in 
public  normal  schools  and  high  schools. 

All  but  five  of  the  States  support  one  or  more  normal 
schools  as  distinct  institutions.  Delaware  has  no  State 
normal  school,  but  a  teachers'  course  is  offered  in  the 
State  College  for  Colored  Students.  Nevada  combines 
this  function  with  the  department  of  education  of  the 
State  university,  while  Utah  and  Wyoming  make  the 
normal  school  a  department  of  the  university.  Ten- 
nessee has  no  State  normal  school,  strictly  speaking, 
although  the  State  contributes  regularly  to  the  support 
of  Peabody  College  for  Teachers. 

Besides  the  State  normal  schools,  there  are  a  number 
of  normal  schools,  teachers'  training-schools,  and  teach- 
ers' colleges  supported  by  municipaUties,  as  in  the  cases 
of  Philadelphia,  Cleveland,  Chicago,  New  York,  and 
Saint  Louis.  The  tendency  of  city  systems  seems  to 
look  to  the  elimination  of  the  local  training-school  or 
teachers'  college  in  order  that  a  wider  field  may  be  had 
from  which  to  recuperate  the  teaching  ranks.  There  is 
an  inclination  at  the  present  time  also  to  change  the 

^U.  S.  Com.  Report,  1910,  vol.  II,  pp.  1075-1125. 


THE   ESTABLISHMENT  OF   SCHOOLS  81 

name  of  these  institutions  generally  from  normal  or 
training  schools  to  teachers'  colleges.  In  several  cases 
they  are  given  regular  college  rank,  offering  four  years 
of  work  beyond  the  high  school,  and  granting  profes- 
sional degrees.  Besides  these  special  schools  and  col- 
leges for  the  training  of  teachers  there  are  numerous 
auxiliaries  for  the  training  of  teachers  in  service,  such 
as  teachers'  institutes,  reading  courses,  and  associations.^ 

9.     Schools  for  Defectives  and  Delinquents 

Another  department  of  public  education  is  represented 
in  the  schools  for  defectives  and  delinquents.  Such  in- 
stitutions are  very  generally  provided  by  the  States,  and 
in  many  cases  are  doing  a  great  work  of  salvage  to  so- 
ciety. Schools  for  defectives  are  those  for  the  blind, 
deaf,  and  feeble-minded.  In  19 10  there  were  reported 
48  schools  for  the  bUnd.  These  institutions  employed 
a  total  of  531  instructors,  178  of  whom  were  male  and 
353  female.  There  were  enrolled  as  pupils  2,263  males 
and  2,060  females,  or  a  total  of  4,323. 

The  enrollment  in  these  schools  for  the  blind  was  dis- 
tributed as  follows  as  to  grade: 

Kindergarten 419 

Elementary,  grades  a  to  4 i,59i 

Elementary,  grades  5  to  8 i>i34 

High-school  grades 599 

One  thousand  three  hundred  and  seventeen  were  being 
instructed  in  vocal  music  and  1,752  in  instrumental; 
2,855  were  in  the  industrial  departments. 

The  total  expenditures  amounted  to  $1,577,383,  or  a 
per-capita  average,  based  on  the  enrollment,  of  $364.85 
per  year. 

'  The  problem  of  the  training  of  teachers  is  treated  more  fully  in 
chap.  IX. 


82  ADMINISTRATION   OF  EDUCATION 

The  schools  for  the  deaf  numbered  57,  with  1,208  in- 
structors, 378  males  and  830  females.  The  total  num- 
ber of  pupils  was  10,399,  5,681  males  and  4,718  females. 
These  were  distributed  as  follows: 

Kindergarten 919 

Elementary  grades,  i  to  4 3,946 

Elementary  grades,  S  to  8 2,483 

High-school  grades 394 

The  number  taught  speech  was  4,135,  the  number  in 
the  industrial  department  6,052.  The  expenditures  for 
the  year  were  $2,971,256,  or  an  average  cost  per  student, 
based  on  enrollment,  of  $285.73. 

Besides  these  State  schools  for  the  deaf,  there  were 
reported  53  day-schools  enroUing  1,508  deaf  pupils  and 
employing  189  instructors. 

In  the  25  institutions  for  the  education  of  the  feeble- 
minded which  reported  in  19 10,  there  were  employed 
270  instructors,  including  58  men  and  212  women,  and 
1,385  assistants.  The  total  number  of  inmates  was  16,- 
678,  of  which  8,825  were  males  and  7,853  females.  The 
reports  show  that  9,689  of  these  could  not  be  taught  in 
school  or  kindergarten.  Of  those  capable  of  receiving 
instruction  1,456  were  in  the  kindergarten,  1,754  in 
grades  one  and  two,  830  in  grades  three  and  four,  and 
393  above  the  fourth  grade.  Four  thousand  six  hundred 
and  seventy-six  were  in  the  industrial-training  depart- 
ment, and  3,069  were  being  taught  some  trade  or  occu- 
pation. The  total  expenditures  of  these  institutions 
was  $3,949,109,  or  $236.80  for  each  inmate  reported. 

The  schools  for  delinquents  have  taken  on  a  different 
significance  in  recent  years.  They  are  more  frequently 
called  industrial  schools,  although  the  name  of  reform 
school  still  holds.  Their  function  is  not  only  reforma- 
tory but  also  protective  or  in  the  nature  of  rescue  schools. 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  SCHOOLS  83 

in  that  the  purpose  frequently  is  to  save  the  young  from 
bad  environments  and  thus  prevent  criminal  develop- 
ment. The  1910  report  shows  115  of  these  institutions 
maintained  by  the  public.  Of  the  56,663  inmates  43,702 
were  boys  and  12,961  girls;  45,741  were  white  and  7,434 
colored;  42,381  received  instruction  in  school  classes, 
and  39,392  were  learning  some  trade.  The  115  schools 
employed  1,117  teachers  and  2,783  assistants  not  teach- 
ers. There  were  expended  a  total  of  $8,430,572  for  main- 
taining these  institutions,  or  an  average  of  $148.78  per 
inmate. 

10.    Military  and  Naval  Schools 

If  we  add  to  this  list  of  descriptions  the  military  and 
naval  schools  and  their  auxiHaries,  the  National  Train- 
ing School  for  Boys  at  Washington,  D.  C,  the  various 
Indian  schools,  the  Bureau  of  Education,  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  and  the  Library  of  Congress,  estab- 
lished and  maintained  chiefly  by  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment, we  shall  have  completed,  in  a  brief  way,  a 
description  of  the  schools  and  institutions  organized  and 
maintained  at  public  expense  for  the  purposes  of  educa- 
tion in  the  United  States. 

II.    Units  of  Control — Preliminary  Considerations 

We  are  now  to  study  the  distribution  of  these  elements 
of  the  school  system  among  the  units  of  control  and  to 
consider  them  as  a  complete  working  scheme.  At  the 
same  time  we  are  to  test  them  by  the  principles  and 
standards  involved  and  with  reference  to  their  efficiency 
in  securing  the  results  for  which  they  have  been  estab- 
lished. 

The  kindergarten,  as  indicated  by  the  figures  already 
given,  is  not  generally  established  as  yet;    but  it  has 


84  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

many  strong  advocates  and  some  fine  training-schools, 
where  teachers  are  prepared  for  the  work.  For  the  gen- 
eral purposes  of  this  discussion  we  may  very  properly 
consider  the  kindergarten  as  a  part  of  the  elementary 
school  system. 

It  requires  all  of  the  imits  of  control,  in  some  one  or 
more  of  their  functions,  for  the  organization  and  opera- 
tion of  elementary  schools.  Primarily,  their  units  are 
district,  township,  or  city;  but  as  there  are  elementary 
schools  for  defectives  and  delinquents,  in  some  cases  it 
belongs  almost  exclusively  to  the  State.  There  are  sep- 
arate elementary  schools  for  white  and  colored  children, 
and  for  rural  and  city  districts.  One  million  seven  hun- 
dred and  twelve  thousand  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven 
of  the  children  enrolled  in  the  common  schools  in  1909 
were  in  the  schools  for  colored  children  of  the  sixteen 
former  slave  States.  As  no  separate  statistics  of  instruc- 
tion and  expenditure  are  reported,  we  may  best  consider 
these  a  part  of  the  general  elementary  system.  This 
leaves  us  the  rural  and  city  elementary  systems,  the 
general  statistical  facts  for  which  have  already  been 
presented. 

12.    Control  of  Rural  Schools 

The  rural  elementary  schools  include  those  in  small 
towns  and  villages  of  a  rural  type  and  those  of  the 
country  districts.  When  the  district  unit  of  control 
prevails  these  schools  are  generally  far  from  ideal  in 
character.  They  are  usually  operated  imder  a  board  of 
three  members  (five  or  more  in  villages  and  small  towns), 
elected  by  the  people  of  the  district.  The  buildings  are 
not,  as  a  rule,  sanitary  and  are  usually  devoid  of  any 
artistic  quality  in  construction.  The  village  and  town 
schools  are  usually  too  large  for  the  number  of  teachers 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF   SCHOOLS  85 

employed,  while  the  schools  in  the  country  districts  are 
relatively  small,  ranging  in  numbers  from  two  or  three 
pupils  to  fifty  or  more.  But  large  numbers  are  rare  in 
the  country  schools. 

Little  attempt  is  made,  as  a  usual  thing,  in  the  way 
of  equipment  for  work.  Many  of  the  schools  have  little 
more  than  desks  in  the  way  of  furnishings.  There  may 
be  a  few  maps,  a  dictionary,  in  rare  instances  a  piano  or 
an  organ;  but  few,  indeed,  are  the  attempts  made  to 
collect  a  suitable  supply  of  books  to  supplement  the  texts 
of  the  children. 

The  teachers  are  mostly  young  girls  just  out  of  high 
school,  and  in  many  cases  from  the  grade  schools  of  the 
same  type  as  the  ones  they  essay  to  teach.  Their  pro- 
fessional preparation  is  frequently  limited  to  a  week  or 
two  in  a  county  institute,  with  possibly  the  reading  of 
one  or  two  elementary  works  on  pedagogy.  In  the 
larger  schools  and  in  the  more  enlightened  and  wealthier 
coDomunities  teachers  of  longer  experience  and  of  better 
training  will  be  found,  but  even  in  these  cases  it  is  rarely 
that  teachers  are  to  be  found  who  are  prepared  to  deal 
adequately  with  the  problems  presented.  The  term  of 
service  of  the  teachers  in  any  one  school  is  very  short — • 
often  but  one  term,  or  year  at  most;  and  very  many  of 
them  drop  out  of  the  work  entirely  after  a  year  or  two 
of  service. 

13.    Provisions  for  Supervision  of  Rural  Schools 

The  village  and  town  schools  usually  are  presided  over 
by  a  principal;  but  he  is  given  no  opportunity  to  super- 
vise the  work.  Most  of  his  time  is  taken  in  teaching 
two  or  more  of  the  "upper  grades."  Even  if  time  were 
given  for  him  to  supervise,  his  characteristic  lack  of  ex- 
perience, or  of  knowledge,  or  of  both,  would  render  such 


86  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

service  of  little  value.  As  it  is,  his  supervisory  function 
is  limited  to  making  reports  to  the  board  and  settling 
difficult  cases  of  discipline,  or  adjusting  complaints  of 
patrons. 

The  supervision  of  the  other  rural  schools  is  generally 
confined  to  the  efforts  of  one  man  who  is  superintendent 
for  the  whole  county.  He  is  usually  a  man  of  ordinary 
attainments  and  experience.  If  he  is  more  ripe  and 
therefore  more  efficient  because  of  a  richer  experience 
this  is  the  chief  quality,  as  a  nile,  by  which  we  may 
differentiate  him  from  the  village  principal.  He  is  well 
meaning  and  takes  his  position  seriously,  as  a  rule;  but 
even  at  his  best  the  unit  of  control  is  too  large  to  be 
supervised  by  one  person  with  any  degree  of  efficiency. 
Unquestionably,  this  is  much  better  than  no  supervision, 
but  it  does  not  meet  the  existing  needs. 

In  States  where  there  is  township  supervision  the  con- 
ditions are  much  better.  In  other  States,  also,  under 
the  district  plan,  better  conditions  prevail  in  some  por- 
tions of  a  State  than  in  others.  This  is  due  sometimes 
to  the  special  efforts  of  a  county  superintendent,  some- 
times to  the  existence  of  higher*  educational  ideals  of 
the  people  who  make  up  the  local  population. 

But  in  spite  of  these  very  interesting  exceptions  in 
the  general  administrative  efficiency  of  this  group  of 
schools,  there  are  evidences  of  the  violation  of  more  than 
one  of  the  five  principles  we  have  laid  down  as  criteria. 
The  education  provided  is  not  nearly  always  equal  to 
the  requirements  of  a  democracy.  The  schools  seldom 
provide  the  forms  of  education  demanded  by  our  social 
and  industrial  conditions.  They  are  frequently  not 
economically  and  efficiently  administered.  Nor  are  all 
the  children  kept  in  school  long  enough  to  accomphsh 
the  purposes  of  society  in  maintaining  them.     An  inter- 


THE  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  SCHOOLS  87 

esting  item  in  the  way  of  statistics  will  serve  to  empha- 
size the  above  statement  of  conditions.  In  1908-9  there 
were  enrolled  in  the  public  schools,  including  both  ele- 
mentary and  secondary,  17,506,175  pupils.  Of  these 
5,807,552  were  enrolled  in  cities  of  4,000  or  more,  thus 
leaving  11,698,623,  or  over  two  thirds  of  all,  enrolled  in 
the  towns,  villages,  and  country  districts.  At  the  same 
time  the  expenditures  for  cities  amounted  to  $211,106,- 
299,  while  the  expenditures  for  the  rural  schools  were 
$190,291,449.  Thus  the  one  third  enrolled  in  city 
schools  called  for  a  larger  expenditure  than  the  two 
thirds  enrolled  in  the  rural  schools.  Evidently  we  must 
allow  for  the  cost  of  high  schools  in  the  cities  which,  on 
account  of  their  expensive  equipment  and  the  higher 
salaries  paid  their  teachers,  cost  much  more,  proportion- 
ately, than  do  the  elementary  schools.  But  even  after 
such  allowance  is  made  the  balance  is  still  largely  in 
favor  of  the  city  elementary  schools. 

14.    General  Conditions  in  City  Schools 

The  city  schools  are  more  completely  organized,  bet- 
ter supervised,  and  employ  teachers  that  are  better 
trained.  They  have  better  buildings  and  a  better  phys- 
ical equipment  generally  than  do  the  rural  schools.  At 
the  same  time  there  are  factors  in  city  environment 
and  in  the  generally  crowded  conditions  of  city  life 
which  tend  strongly  to  counteract  these  better  condi- 
tions. The  more  sanitary  buildings  are  offset  by  im- 
sanitary  surroundings  and  playgrounds  that  are  cramped 
and  shut  in  by  the  surrounding  buildings.  The  better 
equipment  is  a  poor  substitute  for  the  natural  resources 
all  about  the  rural  school.  The  better  teaching  ability 
is  counteracted  by  the  numerous  distractions,  the  re- 
stricted home  conditions,  and  the  absence  of  nature. 


88  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

Superior  supervisory  arrangements  are  very  often  dis- 
sipated by  overcrowding,  the  struggle  with  dirt,  ir- 
regular attendance,  and  frequent  changes  in  the  residence 
of  pupils. 

Such  conditions  have  given  grounds  for  the  assertion 
by  some  critics  of  city  systems  that  with  all  their  ad- 
vantages they  can  produce  no  better,  if  as  good,  results  as 
do  the  rural  schools  with  all  their  seeming  disadvantages. 
The  significance  of  the  whole  matter  is  that  there  is 
need  of  improvement  in  both  types  of  elementary  schools 
and  that  a  still  larger  expenditure  of  funds  will  be  neces- 
sary in  order  to  attain  to  the  most  economic  efficiency. 
In  the  case  of  the  rural  schools  this  expenditure  should 
provide  better  buildings  and  equipment  as  well  as  better 
teaching  and  supervision.  For  the  city  schools  the  need 
seems  to  be  more  largely  for  better  physical  conditions 
in  the  location  and  surroundings,  the  size  of  the  grounds, 
and  the  opportunities  for  contact  with  nature. 

15.    Wide  Variation  in  Character  of  Schools 
Provided 

We  have  spoken  of  the  variations  in  the  quahty  of 
schools  provided  under  different  conditions.  Among 
rural  schools,  especially,  under  district  control,  there  is 
a  wide  variation  as  to  the  amoimt  and  quahty  of  edu- 
cation provided.  We  need  greatly  some  means  by 
which  there  may  be  a  more  equitable  distribution  of 
such  faciUties.  As  it  is  now,  most  of  the  distributable 
funds  are  given  out  on  a  basis  of  school  population  in- 
stead of  as  a  means  of  equaUzing  educational  advantages. 

The  high  schools  are  mostly  for  the  cities.  Only  in  a 
few  States,  and  chiefly  under  township  organization,  are 
these  schools  made  free  to  the  children  from  the  farms. 
In  some  cases  in  the  South,  as  we  have  found,  the  county 


THE   ESTABLISHMENT  OF  SCHOOLS  89 

is  the  unit  for  high-school  organization.  In  either  case 
both  instruction  and  supervision  are  better  provided  for 
than  in  the  case  of  elementary  schools,  as  is  also  the 
physical  equipment.  The  chief  point  at  which  these 
schools  fail  to  meet  the  standards  we  have  set  up  in  the 
five  fundamental  principles  is  in  adapting  the  work  to 
social  and  individual  needs.  Too  much  attention  has 
thus  far  been  given  to  the  purely  academic  side  of  edu- 
cation to  the  exclusion,  largely,  of  the  industrial  side  of 
the  training  of  youth. 

1 6.    Need  of  Industrial  Training 

It  may  be  said  of  both  elementary  and  high-school 
work  that  they  lack  much  along  this  line.  All  through 
our  study  of  the  development  of  the  public-school  idea 
we  have  found  emphasized  the  two  aspects  of  education : 
the  training  of  mind  and  the  training  to  some  useful 
industry.  Society  needs  industrial  intelligence  on  the 
part  of  all  and  industrial  skill  on  the  part  of  those  whose 
service  to  society  is  to  be  through  some  skilled  industry. 
The  best  period  in  which  to  train  the  young  to  skill 
as  well  as  intelligence  is  the  period  from  twelve  to  six- 
teen or  eighteen  years.  In  some  way,  not  wasteful  and 
therefore  uneconomic,  both  these  hnes  of  training  should 
be  provided  for  that  particular  interval  of  school  work. 
Beyond  that,  those  who  expect  to  enter  the  trades  should 
have  further  special  training  along  with  such  academic 
work  as  will  aid  them  in  their  trades  as  well  as  in  per- 
forming their  duties  as  citizens.  Those  who  are  to  go 
on  to  the  higher  institutions  should  have  such  training 
as  is  needed  in  preparation  for  doing  that  higher  work 
in  the  most  effective  and  economic  way. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  SYSTEM  AS  TESTED  BY  THE  FIVE  PRINCIPLES 
OF  CHAPTER  V 

I.    Application  of  Principle  One 

Let  us  now  apply  the  test  of  our  five  principles  to  the 
existing  organization  of  our  schools  as  we  have  briefly 
described  them  in  the  preceding  pages.  Under  principle 
one  it  was  affirmed  that  "intelligence,  skill,  and  right 
conduct  on  the  part  of  a  people  are  fundamentally  essential 
in  a  democracy  J'  If  all  the  people  are  to  participate  in 
government  through  the  exercise  of  the  franchise,  then 
all  should  be  sufficiently  well  educated  to  insure  that 
degree  of  intelligence  as  to  State  and  national  interests 
necessary  to  a  wise  selection  of  representatives  and  lead- 
ers in  our  public  affairs.  Training  merely  in  the  school 
arts  can  give  no  adequate  assurance  of  such  a  degree  of 
intelligence.  A  standard  equal  to  that  of  four  years  in 
high  school  is  low  enough.  With  a  majority  of  voters 
having  a  much  lower  standard  of  general  training  and 
knowledge,  how  can  we  ever  be  on  anything  like  stable 
ground  with  regard  to  the  great  fundamental  problems 
confronting  us? 

Yet  we  are  far  short,  as  yet,  of  providing  free  schools 
of  high-school  grade  for  all  boys  and  girls.  A  large  per- 
centage of  those  in  our  rural  districts  have  no  free  ac- 
cess to  such  schools,  while  in  our  cities  very  many,  the 
majority,  in  fact,  drop  out  to  work  at  or  before  the  close 

90 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  FIVE  PRINCIPLES       91 

of  the  elementary-school  training.  One  remedy  for 
this  situation  would  be  to  extend  the  upper  age  limit 
of  compulsory-attendance  laws  to  sixteen  or  seventeen 
years.  In  many  States  county  high  schools  offer  free 
tuition;  but  these  schools  are  too  far  from  the  majority 
of  pupils  who  would  otherwise  take  advantage  of  them. 
The  movement  is  gaining  among  the  States  for  legisla- 
tion making  the  tuition  payable  by  districts  in  non- 
high-school  territory,  or  by  the  State.  Such  legislation 
occurred  in  191 1  in  Iowa  and  South  Dakota.  Better 
still  is  the  joint  or  union  district  law  which  increases  the 
taxing  unit  for  high-school  purposes  so  as  to  include  all 
territory  logically  tributary  to  an  established  social  and 
commercial  centre,  as  a  village,  town,  or  small  city. 
This  plan  works  admirably  in  California  when  combined 
with  a  law  providing  that  a  tax  be  levied  on  all  non- 
high-school  territory  in  a  county  for  payment  of  tuition 
of  those  from  such  territory  attending  high  school.  The 
Illinois  township  high-school  law  as  enacted  in  191 1  has 
the  same  effect  as  far  as  the  union-district  idea  is  con- 
cerned, but  a  fully  effective  free-tuition  measure  is  still 
lacking.  The  one  of  19 13  still  leaves  some  districts 
without  free  high-school  privileges. 

As  regards  the  training  of  skilled  workmen  in  differ- 
ent industrial  lines,  we  can  scarcely  be  said  to  have  made 
a  beginning  as  yet.  Recent  statistics  show  that  only 
twenty-nine  States  have  any  legislation  with  reference 
to  practical  activities.  This  includes  all  grades  and 
forms  of  training  in  manual  arts,  domestic  economy, 
agriculture,  and  trades.  Nearly  all  of  these  represent 
permissive  legislation  with  only  sixteen  States  offering 
any  inducement  by  way  of  State  aid.  Much  of  the 
training  represented  is  not  of  a  kind  calculated  to  aid 
materially  in  acquiring  skill  of  a  definite  and  well  or- 


92  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

ganized  character.  Because  of  the  permissive  character 
of  most  of  the  legislation  and  the  absence,  in  many  cases, 
of  such  a  stimulus  as  an  offer  of  aid  from  the  State  al- 
ways gives,  little  use  has  as  yet  been  made  of  these  laws 
in  organizing  vocational  courses.  Likewise,  in  training 
to  right  ideals  and  standards  of  conduct  we  seem  to  have 
been,  thus  far,  very  deficient.  As  to  just  what  should 
be  done  in  this  latter  case  we  are  still  much  in  doubt; 
but  all  may  readily  agree  that  there  should  be  a  wise 
and  liberal  provision  for  vocational  training  in  our 
schools  if  we  are  to  maintain  our  standing  among  na- 
tions in  competition  for  a  market  through  which  to  dis- 
pose advantageously  of  our  surplus  products  from  the 
great  fimdamental  industries  and  in  the  finer  arts  of 
life. 

But  to  stop  merely  with  the  training  of  workmen  to 
skill  would  be  a  fatal  error  if  there  did  not  come  along 
with  it  civic  intelligence  for  the  tradesman  and  indus- 
trial intelligence  for  the  professional  man  and  the  capi- 
talist. It  is  in  this  latter  respect,  after  all,  perhaps,  that 
we  are  most  in  danger  as  far  as  our  institutional  life  is 
concerned.  Without  a  general  industrial  inteUigence  on 
the  part  of  all  classes  we  are  bound  to  have  more  or  less 
of  clashing  and  discord  between  capital  and  labor,  thus 
rendering  all  great  enterprises  of  a  constructive  nature 
uncertain  of  attainment  and  unstable  even  when  they 
seem  to  have  been  attained. 

2.     Our  Schools  as  Tested  by  Principle  Two 

The  second  principle  reads:  "//  is  the  aim  of  society 
through  tJie  public  school  to  insure  to  all  the  people  the 
greatest  degree  of  efficiency,  physically,  intellectually,  mor- 
ally, and  industrially,  of  which  they  are  individually  and 
collectively  capable."    This  is  complementary  to  the  first 


APPLICATION   OF  THE  FIVE  PRINCIPLES        93 

principle  and  its  application  is,  therefore,  largely  involved 
in  that  of  the  latter.  The  chief  point  at  which  this 
common  application  is  not  so  evident  is  that  of  provid- 
ing for  the  physical  well-being  of  those  educated  in  our 
schools.  Our  people  are  only  just  awakening  to  a  reali- 
zation of  the  possibilities  and  needs  of  this  phase  of  edu- 
cational administration.  Indeed,  we  may  very  justly 
say  that  those  communities  are  relatively  few  where 
such  awakening  has  advanced  to  the  point  of  making 
anything  like  adequate  provision  for  protecting  the 
schools  against  inroads  made  upon  attendance  and  effi- 
ciency by  bad  nutrition  of  pupils,  chronic  ailments,  neg- 
lect of  the  teeth,  and  the  various  contagious  diseases 
common  to  children  and  youth. 

In  many  of  the  larger  cities  and  in  some  smaller  cen- 
tres efficient  departments  of  health  and  hygiene  have 
been  organized.  According  to  statistics  collected  by  the 
Russell  Sage  Foundation  and  published  in  191 1,  443  out 
of  1,038  cities  reporting  provided  for  medical  inspection 
of  school  children.^  But  a  vast  amount  of  work  still  re- 
mains to  be  done  before  this  phase  of  our  educational 
organism  can  be  said  to  be  efficiently  handled.  Prac- 
tically all  of  our  rural  and  village  schools  are  as  yet 
without  any  service  of  this  kind  in  coimection  with  the 
training  of  the  young.  Such  provision  must  doubtless 
wait  upon  a  better  administrative  organization  for  these 
schools. 

The  department  of  work  here  referred  to,  as  thus  far 
set  up  in  its  most  desirable  form,  includes,  under  the 
direction  of  the  board  and  the  general  superintendent 
of  instruction  of  the  district,  a  department  of  health 
composed  of  a  medical  inspector  and  assistants,  visiting 

'  This  is  quoted  from  the  Com.  of  Education  Report,  191 1,  vol.  I,  p» 
137- 


94  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

nurses,  medical  and  dental  clinics,  with  all  proper  facili- 
ties for  the  best  of  treatment  and  care  of  those  having 
remediable  physical  defects.  Such  a  department  should 
also  be  closely  related  to  and  in  co-operation  with  the 
department  of  physical  education.  To  some  of  the 
members  of  this  latter  department  or  to  the  physician 
in  charge  of  medical  inspection  should  be  assigned 
the  function  of  prescribing  specific  training  for  those 
having  any  physical  weakness  or  deformity  which  may 
be  remedied  by  the  proper  physical  treatment,  such  as 
spinal  curvature  or  dislocation  of  either  arch.  This 
would  involve  some  knowledge  of  orthopedics. 

All  of  the  above  work  is  much  better  done  when  under 
the  direct  control  of  the  board  of  education  than  when 
made  a  distinct  function  under  the  control  of  the  town 
or  city  government.  Emphasis  should  be  put  upon  the 
number  and  qualifications,  personal  and  professional,  of 
the  visiting  nurses.  It  is  they  who  will  need  to  go  to 
the  homes  in  follow-up  cases,  a  service  which  requires 
consummate  tact,  sympathy,  and  persistency  in  order  to 
open  the  way  for  such  treatment. 

There  is  need,  also,  that  the  mentally  defective  should 
be  studied  through  the  psychological  clinic  in  order  to 
endeavor  to  attain  knowledge  requisite  for  the  special 
treatment  demanded  in  such  cases.  Thus  far  we  have 
made  but  little  progress,  comparatively,  in  this  form  of 
conservation,  although  there  is  that  in  the  form  of  legis- 
lation by  States  and  in  the  action  of  larger  cities  in  pro- 
viding tests  and  special  classes  for  such  defectives  to  in- 
dicate that  a  much  better  condition  for  the  near  future 
is  now  assured  with  regard  to  this  particular  need. 

As  regards  moral  education  we  are  undoubtedly  de- 
ficient. Perhaps  we  have  leaned  toward  the  extreme  a 
little  in  our  anxiety  to  eliminate  all  ecclesiastical  con- 


APPLICATION   OF  THE   FIVE   PRINCIPLES       95 

trol  from  the  public-school  system.  At  any  rate,  we 
have  been  too  much  inclined  to  emphasize  purely  intel- 
lectual training  to  the  neglect  of  the  inculcation  of  those 
principles  and  habits  which  make  for  righteous  living. 
In  this  respect  also  the  schools  we  have  set  up  are  still 
lacking  in  efficiency. 

3.     Schools  Fall  Short  under  Principle  Three 

Principle  three  is:  ^^ Schools,  to  he  efficient,  must  he  va- 
ried in  type  to  the  end  that  they  may  provide  for  individual 
differences  in  capacity  and  in  stages  of  development,  and 
also  for  the  varied  needs  of  society  in  the  way  of  trained 
service. ^^  As  to  the  first  point,  it  may  fairly  be  said  that 
the  schools  as  now  organized  do  not  make  adequate 
provision,  as  a  rule,  for  individual  dififerences.  It  is 
pretty  generally  agreed  by  all  students  of  this  problem 
that  our  schools  are  in  need  of  a  rather  complete  read- 
justment. From  the  sixth  grade  on  there  is  especially 
lacking  that  differentiation  of  the  work  offered  in  the 
schools  which  makes  possible  a  reasonable  provision  for 
the  individual  differences  referred  to.  For  a  very  simi- 
lar reason  also  we  fall  short  on  the  second  point  of  pro- 
viding that  variety  and  degree  of  trained  service  which 
society  demands. 

What  we  need  in  order  to  remedy  these  very  serious 
defects  is  not  more  and  different  types  of  schools  so  much 
as  the  complete  reorganization  of  the  schools  we  have 
with  more  serious  attention  to  the  motor  activities  as 
they  are  actually  related  to  the  needs  of  life.  There  is 
needed  a  decided  departure  from  our  prevaiHng  ideas 
of  school  architecture  in  order  to  give  the  most  satisfac- 
tory and  economic  conditions  for  the  vocational  activi- 
ties which  such  a  reorganization  of  our  schools  would  set 
up.    There  is  also  to  be  considered  the  supply  of  those 


96  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

properly  qualified  and  available  for  giving  instruction  in 
these  new  departments  of  school  work.  As  yet  little 
attention  has  been  given  to  providing  ways  and  means 
for  the  training  of  such  teachers.  If  the  State — any 
State — is  to  undertake  the  solution  of  these  problems 
with  any  prospect  of  success,  the  means  for  providing 
this  new  factor  in  the  instructional  work  of  our  schools 
must  have  prompt  and  adequate  consideration. 

4.    Need  of  a  Better  Economy  Shown — Principle  Four 

True  economy  in  the  conduct  of  any  worthy  enter- 
prise is  not  necessarily  measured  by  the  minimum  of 
expenditure  of  whatever  resources  may  be  demanded  for 
achieving  the  essential  results.  Principle  four  reads 
thus:  ^'The  situation  demands  the  most  economic  treat- 
ment of  the  problem  of  education  financially,  in  the  matter 
of  time,  and  also  in  health  conditions  that  is  consistent 
with  its  most  effective  administration.^^  Educational  ex- 
penditures are,  in  the  aggregate,  very  large.  In  dealing 
with  so  large  a  social  group  it  is  necessary  that  this 
should  be  so.  In  1909  there  were  in  actual  attendance 
on  the  public  schools  12,684,837  children,  which  was 
72.5  per  cent  of  the  number  enrolled  in  the  schools. 
The  total  expense  of  the  schools  for  the  same  year  was 
$401,397,747.  This  would  be  an  average  total  cost  per 
child  in  actual  attendance  of  $31.57,  or  not  more  than  a 
man  would  pay  for  an  ordinary  overcoat  or  a  suit  of 
clothes.  Where,  indeed,  could  society  or  the  individual 
expect  to  get  as  much  for  the  money  invested?  Sup- 
pose the  cost  were  $50  per  pupil;  if  we  have  any  appre- 
ciation at  all  of  relative  values,  the  price  would  be  very 
low,  the  investment  a  gilt-edged  one.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  State  of  Washington  does  spend  $50.75  per 
pupil  and  the  State  of  California  $47.65  per  pupil.     To 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  FIVE  PRINCIPLES       97 

be  sure,  the  man  who  would  sell  his  soul  for  a  debauch 
could  see  nothing  but  total  loss  in  such  expenditure; 
and  so  the  estimate  would  run,  gradually  increasing  up 
to  the  view-point  of  the  man  who  knows  what  govern- 
ment, peace  and  harmony,  social  well-being,  the  finer 
joys  of  life  derived  from  peaceful  and  happy  homes, 
artistic  appreciation,  regard  for  our  fellow  men,  are  really 
worth.  Ah,  here  is  the  trouble!  Men,  because  they 
lack  vision,  because  they  do  not  know  social  and  eco- 
nomic values,  are  mean  and  niggardly  in  all  those  expen- 
ditures which  are  essential  to  the  establishment  or  cul- 
tivation of  such  values. 

But  all  this  does  not  excuse  any  laxity  or  leniency 
where  true  economy  in  the  use  of  educational  funds  is 
concerned.  These  very  men  who  know  not  the  values 
with  which  they  deal,  when  placed  in  responsible  posi- 
tions as  guardians  of  this  great  social  trust,  the  pubUc 
school,  will  build  shabby  and  inadequate  buildings  on 
ground  that  is  undesirable  and  skimped.  They  will  let 
contracts  for  material  supplies  to  the  lowest  bidder,  re- 
gardless of  other  conditions,  if  they  do  not  even  accept 
a  bonus  for  giving  the  business  or  the  service  to  the  one 
who  dehberately  plans  thus  to  trade  upon  the  children's 
needs.  They  will  employ  teachers  at  the  lowest  possible 
salary,  regardless  of  quaKfications,  the  character  and  need 
of  which  they  do  not  understand,  in  order  to  "keep 
down"  the  school  tax.  They  invariably  stand  opposed 
to  any  movement  that,  in  any  way,  looks  toward  better 
and  more  efl&cient  schools. 

5.     Why  Society  Must  Share  the  Criticism  of  the 
Schools 

We  hear  much  in  these  days  about  the  failure  of  the 
public  schools  in  meeting  the  demands  put  upon  them. 


98  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

But  most  of  the  complaint  is  directed  against  the  teach- 
ers, against  those  who  are  called  by  society  to  ad- 
minister the  instructional  work.  Little  is  said  about 
the  failure  of  society  to  provide  the  means  adequate  for 
the  production  of  such  results.  We  hear  nothing  in  the 
public  press  about  this  niggardly,  senseless  attitude  of 
those  whom  society  has  called  to  hold  the  educational 
purse;  nothing  when  society,  over  large  areas  of  the 
coimtry,  cries  out  unceasingly  and  works,  often  insanely, 
against  some  slight  additional  outlay  looking  toward 
a  betterment  of  the  schools.  And  all  the  lingering  ad- 
vocates of  ecclesiastical  control  of  education  join  the 
ranks  of  these  men,  without  vision  and  with  no  appre- 
ciation of  the  greater  social  values,  in  helping  to  perpetu- 
ate the  inadequacy  of  the  public  schools.  If  this  were 
democracy,  inevitably  and  always,  with  no  ground  for 
an  optimistic  outlook  toward  the  future,  then  democracy 
would  be  nothing  but  a  huge  blunder,  a  grewsome  thing 
at  which  all  patriotic  men  must  look  with  foreboding 
and  dismay. 

If  there  is  any  remedy  for  this  uneconomic  treatment 
of  one  of  our  greatest  social  investments  it  must  be 
sought  through  the  estabhshment  of  such  means  for  the 
selection  of  those  set  aside  by  society  for  managing  this 
huge  enterprise  as  will  be  most  likely  to  secure  men 
of  sufficient  breadth  and  understanding  to  be  able  to 
choose  wisely  the  materials  of  education  and  also  those 
who  are  to  administer  the  work  of  instruction.  Wher- 
ever this  has  been  done,  and  where  the  social  group  con- 
cerned has  been  content  to  trust  the  experts  thus  chosen, 
and  to  invest  the  amount  of  capital  necessary  to  oper- 
ate the  educational  plant,  provide  for  up-keep,  and  take 
care  of  the  necessary  increase  and  expansion,  there  we 
shall  find  schools  not  seriously  open  to  the  criticisms 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  FIVE  PRINCIPLES       99 

which  have  thus  far  been  hurled  broadcast  and  with- 
out discrimination  at  our  entire  system  of  public  edu- 
cation. 

6.     Need  of  Economy  in  Time 

Economy  in  time  is  inseparably  connected  with 
financial  economy  and  the  conservation  of  health.  In 
the  first  place  the  individual  is  concerned.  He  has  but 
once  to  go  the  way  of  life.  When  the  state  assumes  to 
take  a  portion  of  this  relatively  short  period  for  the 
proper  education  of  the  individual,  the  state,  society, 
also  assumes  the  obligation  to  see  to  it  that  this  time  is 
not  wasted  either  through  failure  to  provide  the  neces- 
sary means  or  through  inadequate  or  inefiicient  instruc- 
tion. A  similar  obhgation  rests,  also,  with  reference  to 
the  physical  well-being  of  the  child  as  related  to  the 
work  of  the  school.  Here  society,  in  order  to  protect 
itself  effectively,  must  often  protect  the  child,  through 
adequate  health  laws,  against  the  laxity,  inadequacy,  or 
venality  of  the  home  or  the  industrial  world.  All  this 
may  mean  the  loss  or  gain  of  time  to  the  individual. 

The  same  conditions  in  the  home  or  the  industry 
named  above  may  also  tend  to  rob  the  child  of  the 
time  needed  in  the  school,  thus  also  tending  to  defeat 
the  purpose  of  society  in  establishing  and  maintaining 
the  school.  Against  such  loss  society  must  protect  itself 
and  the  individual  by  enacting  and  providing  adequately 
for  the  enforcement  of  attendance  laws.  This  involves, 
as  an  auxiliary  to  instruction  similar  to  that  of  health 
supervision,  the  establishment  of  a  department  which 
shall  see  to  the  just  and  strict  enforcement  of  attendance 
laws.  Incidentally,  also,  there  will  be  involved  some 
provision  for  the  proper  treatment  of  those  children 
who  early  develop  incorrigible  tendencies,  as  manifested 


100  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

by  habitual  truancy  or  a  general  unsocial  attitude  toward 
the  school. 

Here,  again,  as  in  the  case  of  the  health  problem,  the 
general  practice  is  neglectful  and  uneconomic,  although 
there  is  a  marked  tendency  toward  betterment  of  con- 
ditions in  this  respect.^  It  is  evident  enough  that  both 
these  sources  of  waste,  if  they  are  to  be  reduced,  will 
involve  some  additional  outlay.  The  basis  for  their 
economic  treatment  will  be  found  in  the  rights  and  in- 
terests both  of  the  individual  and  of  society.  Over 
against  the  money  cost  of  the  remedy  will  stand  the  rela- 
tive advantage  of  the  socially  adjusted  and  efficient  in- 
dividual as  contrasted  with  the  cost  of  the  unsocial  and 
inefficient  or  totally  dependent  member  of  the  social 
group. 

7.     Application  of  F>rinciple  Five 

Principle  five,  which  follows,  has  already  been  con- 
sidered under  the  preceding  discussion  of  economic  con- 
siderations: "/w  order  to  secure  the  general  effectiveness 
of  such  a  system,  society  must,  by  legal  compulsion  if  nec- 
essary, see  to  it  that  parents  keep  their  children  in  school 
long  enough  to  enable  them  to  get  at  least  the  minimum  of 
knowledge,  wisdom,  and  skill  necessary  to  the  highest  good 
of  the  individual  and  the  well-being  of  the  State. ^^  There 
is  lacking  a  general  appreciation  among  some  important 
groups  of  our  people  as  to  what  is  essentially  included 
in  such  a  "minimum  of  knowledge,  wisdom,  and  skill." 
This  limitation  is  true  of  rural  communities  generally; 
of  some  of  our  more  or  less  segregated  foreign  popula- 
tions; of  large  manufacturing  and  mining  centres.  It 
should  not  be  forgotten  that  such  groups  require  every 

*  Both  these  problems  of  health  and  attendance  will  be  found  treated 
more  fully  later  on  as  special  topics  for  chapters. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  FIVE  PRINCIPLES     101 

opportunity  for  enlightenment  on  this  phase  of  our  so- 
cial needs.  For  upon  the  education  of  the  parents,  in 
such  instances,  must  the  education  of  the  children  wait, 
especially  that  which  extends  beyond  the  first  six  years 
of  the  elementary  school. 

8.    Need  of  Social  Like-Mindedness 

When  we  come  to  consider  our  educational  system  as 
a  whole  we  are  at  once  struck  with  its  lack  of  complete- 
ness and  fuU  co-ordination.  The  general  situation  may 
be  described  as  an  almost  utter  lack  of  any  social  hke- 
mindedness  in  regard  to  many  of  the  most  important 
features  of  our  scheme  for  educating  the  yoimg.  If  it 
is  urged  that  this  condition  is  due  to  the  process  of  de- 
velopment through  which  we  have  come  and  are  still 
advancing  as  a  nation,  well  and  good.  But  is  it  not 
time,  in  the  interests  of  economy  and  efficiency,  that  we 
apply  a  little  of  our  scientific  method  to  the  betterment 
of  this  shaping  process  rather  than  that  we  close  our 
eyes  to  the  most  glaring  inconsistencies  because  this  has 
been  done  in  the  past?  It  is  one  of  the  glories  of  de- 
mocracy that  it  permits  of  a  maximum  of  initiative  and 
of  free  development  along  all  possible  lines.  But  there 
are  certain  fundamental  features  pertaining  to  an  insti- 
tution of  such  nation-wide  importance  as  is  the  public 
school  which  should  be  accepted  as  constants  by  all 
elements  of  our  larger  social  group.  Such  constants  are 
fairly  expressed  in  the  five  principles  which  we  have 
just  been  using  as  a  basis  for  testing  our  educational 
organization. 

In  order  to  achieve  those  results  upon  which  our  social 
fabric  must  rest  for  its  permanency  and  effectiveness, 
society  should  see  that  all  maladjustments,  all  omis- 
sions, all  leaks  in  the  parts  of  the  structure  or  at  their 


102  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

lines  and  points  of  articulation  are  eliminated.  Further, 
all  waste  as  a  result  of  unnecessary  duplications  in  func- 
tion should  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  if  not  entirely 
prevented, 

9.    Need  of  Better  Organization 

We  have  noted,  for  instance,  evidences  of  incomplete 
functioning  on  the  part  of  certain  types  of  schools. 
There  has  appeared  a  lack  of  proper  attention  to  train- 
ing to  skill  in  workmanship  in  the  upper  elementary 
grades  and  in  the  high  school.  It  is  believed  by  those 
who  have  most  carefully  studied  this  problem  that  the 
organization  of  our  school  units  is  wrong  here — that  we 
should  begin  as  early  as  the  seventh  year  or  grade  to 
arrange  the  work  departmentaUy  so  as  to  make  possible 
the  introduction  of  such  vocational  instruction.  The 
experiments  that  have  thus  far  been  made  along  this 
line  seem  to  corroborate  this  view.  But  there  is  no 
general  acceptance,  no  movement,  except  in  remote 
centres.  The  economic  way  would  seem  to  be  for  so- 
ciety to  organize  carefully  conducted  experiments  under 
such  typical  conditions  as  would  be  fairly  representative 
of  all  important  variations  in  communities.  Such  experi- 
ments, directed  by  experts,  would  serve  to  demonstrate 
the  strength  or  weakness  of  the  plan  and  would  attract 
attention  not  only  to  the  need  of  a  remedy  but  also 
to  the  best  way  of  realizing  it.  As  things  now  are,  all  is 
left  to  a  "cut-and-try"  process  on  the  part  of  independ- 
ent units  of  control  educationally,  while  traditional  cus- 
tom holds  sway  in  general,  and  school  authorities  suc- 
cumb to  the  general  lethargy. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  FIVE  PRINCIPLES     103 

10.    High  Schools  Should  be  Free  to  All 

Another  cause  of  incomplete  functioning  seen  in  our 
high  schools  is  due  to  the  fact  that  this  grade  of  public 
education  is  not  yet  made  free  to  all  sections  and  classes. 
For  a  long  time  to  come  the  high  school  must  be  the 
chief  training  place  for  teachers  for  our  rural  schools. 
But  in  most  States  there  are  not  a  sufl&cient  number  of 
high-school  graduates  entering  the  teacher's  calling  to 
supply  more  than  a  fraction  of  the  number  needed  to 
fill  all  the  positions  open  to  those  of  such  grade  of  train- 
ing. As  a  result,  many  whose  quaUfications  are  much 
lower  become  the  teachers  of  these  schools.  And  even 
if  the  high  schools  were  suflScient  in  numbers  and  free 
to  all,  there  would  still  be  lacking,  in  most  of  them,  the 
vocational  instruction  which  those  who  are  to  teach 
should  have  as  a  part  of  their  high-school  training. 

II.    Neglect  of  Rural-School  Needs 

The  normal  schools  have  thus  far  largely  neglected 
the  needs  of  the  rural  schools  in  their  special  work  of 
preparing  teachers.  This  is  a  result  more  largely  of  an 
economic  situation,  however,  than  of  any  direct  or  wil- 
ful action  on  the  part  of  those  administering  this  feature 
in  our  educational  scheme.  The  social  classes  from  which 
the  vast  majority  of  our  rural  teachers  are  drawn  are 
not  such  as  would  feel  able,  in  most  instances,  to  main- 
tain one  or  more  members  of  the  family  away  from 
home  for  one  or  two  years  in  order  that  they  might  be 
prepared  to  teach.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who  do 
take  the  two  years  of  training  at  a  greater  outlay  seek 
the  positions  which  pay  best  and  which  offer  the  great- 
est inducements  in  the  way  of  vocational  or  social  ad- 
vancement.   It  is  probably  this  state  of  things  that  is 


104  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

largely  responsible  for  the  seeming  neglect,  by  normal 
schools,  of  rural-school  interests. 

The  situation  points  definitely  to  the  need  of  a  better 
adjustment  in  the  organization  of  rural  schools.  The 
isolated,  poorly  kept,  often  unequipped  rural  school  is 
not  a  strong  inducement  for  young  men,  and  especially 
not  for  young  women,  who  have  had  a  two  years'  con- 
tact with  the  larger  social  life  and  advantages  offered 
by  a  normal-school  environment.  The  solution  offered, 
and  which  experience  approves,  is  consolidation  of  rural 
schools  as  a  substitute  for  the  village  school  of  Europe, 
and  a  more  complete  provision  for  the  supervision  of  all 
rural  education. 

12.    Where  Colleges  and  Universities  Fall  Short 

The  colleges  and  universities  are  also  guilty  of  incom- 
plete functioning  as  related  to  the  problem  of  universal 
public  education  of  a  type  to  fit  the  needs  of  our  poHt- 
ical  and  social  order.  These  higher  institutions  have 
shown  the  same  seeming  lack  of  interest  in  the  institu- 
tions lower  down  as  have  the  normal  schools  toward  the 
rural  community  needs.  The  facilities  needed  for  the 
training  of  leaders  in  expert  educational  service  and  of 
teachers  for  our  high  schools  have  been  very  tardily  and 
inadequately  provided.  Economic  considerations  have 
caused  the  normal  schools  to  push  their  graduates  into 
these  fields.  At  the  same  time  similar  considerations 
have  prevented  a  sufficiently  large  number  of  those  with 
college  or  university  training  from  entering  the  teaching 
field,  in  institutions  below  college  rank,  to  meet  the 
demand  for  properly  qualified  teachers  in  our  rapidly 
expanding  system  of  secondary  schools.  A  further  neg- 
lect by  the  universities  has  been  in  a  failure  to  offer 
courses  for  those  who  were  looking  forward  to  a  career 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  FIVE  PRINCIPLES     lOo 

in  the  field  of  the  educational  expert  as  it  is  related  to 
the  general  administration  of  education.  This  defect  is 
now  being  remedied  as  rapidly  as  it  is  possible  for  the 
new  scientific  view-point  to  find  recognition  among  the 
still  strongly  intrenched  traditions  of  the  liberal-arts 
courses.  The  idea  strongly  holds,  however,  in  many 
sections,  that  all  there  is  to  education  in  the  common 
schools  is  teaching,  and  that  the  sole  requirement  for 
this,  from  the  standpoint  of  university  preparation,  is 
a  profound  knowledge  of  the  subject  to  be  taught. 

13.     Better  Classification  of  Defectives  and 
Delinquents 

The  treatment  of  defective  and  delinquent  classes  is 
also  open  to  serious  question  as  to  its  real  economy  and 
effectiveness.  Here  the  per-capita  cost  is  so  great  as  to 
require  the  utmost  care  lest  the  methods  of  treatment 
be  ineffective  and  wasteful.  The  more  careful  sifting 
of  these  classes  with  the  idea  of  avoiding  useless  experi- 
mentation upon  those  who  cannot  be  successfully  treated 
as  cases  for  education  should  bring  some  relief  to  this 
situation.  The  application  of  the  tests  of  the  psycholog- 
ical clinic  and  the  more  persistent  study  of  individual 
antecedents  may  be  expected  to  lead  to  a  much  more 
definite  and  tangible  basis  for  treatment  of  this  problem 
than  has  heretofore  been  possible.  But  not  until  these 
institutions  are  placed  on  a  basis  of  non-political  expert 
control  can  any  such  advancement  in  their  management 
and  results  be  expected. 


CHAPTER  Vn 

BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION 

I.     Popular  Participation  the  Rule  in  Our  School 
Organization 

Like  Germany,  our  educational  interests  are  left  to 
individual  States  to  administer  rather  than  to  the  na- 
tion at  large.  Unlike  Germany,  however,  our  tendency 
has  been  toward  the  encouragement  of  local  initiative 
and  popular  participation  in  control.  This  is  in  strict 
accord  with  the  spirit  and  method  of  our  government, 
both  State  and  national,  in  all  its  branches.  There  have 
been  variations  at  times  and  in  certain  departments  of 
government  or  certain  sections  of  the  country.  But  re- 
actions in  such  cases  are  common.  We  have  a  striking 
evidence  of  this  in  the  popular  demand  for  "referendum 
and  recall."  Our  courts,  by  reason  of  the  manner  of 
their  estabhshment,  have  gradually  drawn  away  from 
the  original  source  of  their  authority — the  people.  So 
completely  have  they  hedged  themselves  and  their  acts 
about  with  precedents  that  their  procedures  amount 
practically  to  the  determination  of  the  laws  of  the  land. 
Their  holdings  and  decisions  either  predetermine  legis- 
lation or  else  mould  or  veto  it  afterward.  As  a  logical 
result  of  such  a  condition,  the  people  who  created  these 
courts  are  now  demanding  their  reformation. 

In  setting  up  units  of  control  in  education  States  have 
generally  recognized  this  fundamental  principle  of  our 

106 


BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION  107 

peculiar  form  of  democracy.  There  have  been  excep- 
tional cases  readily  traceable  to  some  local  condition 
or  influence.  Ambitious  departments  of  government 
have  sought  in  various  ways  to  centralize  this  control. 
But  thus  far,  in  the  main,  the  people  have  insisted  upon 
a  hearing  and  the  right  to  participate  in  the  establish- 
ment and  conduct  of  the  schools.  Wherever  movement 
has  been  away  from  the  people  there  has  been  seen  a 
tendency  toward  the  same  formaUsm  and  aloofness  from 
popular  sentiment  which  the  courts  have  manifested. 

2.    Results  of  Lack  of  Such  Participation 

One  of  the  most  striking  illustrations  of  such  an  atro- 
phied condition  of  public  interest  in  education  as  would 
naturally  result  from  lack  of  participation  is  to  be  found 
in  the  Southern  States.  In  recent  years  there  has  come 
a  tremendous  awakening  among  educators,  statesmen, 
and  men  of  the  more  recently  developed  industrial  in- 
terests of  the  South  with  regard  to  the  need  of  more  and 
better  schools.  But  the  people  have  become  accus- 
tomed to  look  to  the  State,  as  a  sort  of  generous  parent, 
to  supply  the  funds  necessary  to  support  their  meagre 
educational  requirements.  Now  that  their  interest  and 
support  are  demanded  in  a  local  way  to  make  possible  the 
needed  increase  in  facilities  for  the  education  of  their 
children,  they  present  to  the  appeals  of  the  reformer  an 
indifference  and  lethargy  that  are  baflSing  and  almost 
hopeless. 

A  similar  situation  has  been  imminent  with  regard  to 
our  higher  institutions  of  learning.  Even  State  institu- 
tions dependent  upon  popular  support  have  been  in- 
volved in  some  instances.  There  has  grown  up  in  these 
institutions,  all  unpremeditatedly,  a  certain  aristocratic 
attitude  of  aloofness  from  general  popular  needs  and 


108  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

interests.  Just  in  proportion  as  these  institutions  have 
receded  from  such  an  attitude,  have  become  thoroughly 
humanized,  as  it  were,  and  have  taken  up,  with  all  sin- 
cerity, those  great  problems  of  the  people  which  higher 
learning  alone  can  render  soluble,  to  that  extent  have  the 
people  responded,  and  will  continue  to  respond,  in  pro- 
viding adequately  and  generously  for  their  support. 

3.     Logical  Limitations  to  Centralized  Control 

We  hear  much  talk  in  these  days  about  tendencies 
toward  centralization  in  our  educational  affairs.  Let  us 
not  be  deceived.  We  may  find  more  effective  adjust- 
ments of  the  machinery  for  the  administering  of  our 
schools;  indeed,  there  is  everywhere  seen  the  need  of 
such  readjustments.  But  in  the  strict  sense,  in  the  sense 
that  there  is  to  be  less  of  participation  by  the  people  than 
heretofore,  there  is  no  such  evidence  of  a  tendency  to- 
ward centralized  control.  If  there  were  such  a  tendency 
there  would  be  in  it  a  genuine  cause  for  alarm  for  all 
those  who  seek  the  permanent  advancement  of  educa- 
tion and  the  perpetuity  of  our  democracy. 

Ultimately  the  cost  of  education  falls  upon  all  the 
people,  upon  all  who  pay  the  price  of  rentals,  of  food,  of 
clothing,  of  that  which  satisfies  any  human  want.  These 
same  people  will  not  knowingly  surrender  their  right 
to  an  accounting  for  what  they  thus  contribute  toward 
the  maintenance  of  schools.  They  will  even  demand  a 
right  to  some  specific  representation  on  both  the  taxing 
and  the  spending  bodies  set  up  by  society  to  provide  the 
necessary  schools.  Every  proposed  increase  in  the  edu- 
cational budget  in  order  to  provide  for  the  rapidly  grow- 
ing demands  due  to  our  educational  development  will 
call  out  more  and  more  insistently  a  demand  for  this 
representation,  and  for  wide-spread  publicity  with  re- 


BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION  109 

gard  to  all  innovations  or  increased  expenditures  pro- 
posed by  those  set  aside  as  experts  to  conduct  the  edu- 
cation of  the  young  in  our  pubUc  schools.  And  this  is 
only  right  and  just.  How  else  is  the  individual  to  get 
all  the  development,  physical,  mental,  spiritual,  to  which, 
"by  the  sweat  of  his  brow,"  he  has  an  inherent  and  in- 
alienable right? 

4.     Operation  of  This  Principle  in  Case  of  Boards 
of  Control 

It  is  a  most  remarkable  fact  that  in  all  the  seemingly 
haphazard  development  of  State  systems  of  education 
this  principle  of  the  need  and  the  right  of  participation 
by  the  people  is  always  uppermost.  Nowhere  is  this 
more  clearly  evident  than  in  the  provisions  made  for 
boards  of  control  of  the  educational  units  discussed  in 
the  foregoing  chapters.  The  usual  practice  of  society 
has  been  to  set  over  each  of  the  units  of  control  a  group 
of  persons  chosen  by  the  people  as  a  board  of  school  di- 
rectors or  a  board  of  education.  Such  a  practice  may  be 
said  to  be  universal  in  the  case  of  cities  and  all  school 
districts,  including  townships  where  these  are  the  local 
units.  It  is  much  less  frequently  true  of  counties  and 
States. 

In  the  case  of  local  or  district  units  such  boards  are 
invested  with  large  powers  and  duties,  including  prac- 
tically all  that  is  essential  to  the  estabhshment  and  opera- 
tion of  schools.  In  the  organization  of  the  larger  units, 
with  but  few  exceptions,  the  functions  of  such  boards 
are  much  more  general  and  limited,  usually  having  to  do 
with  those  things  common  to  the  larger  unit  as  distin- 
guished from  interests  more  local  and  specific  in  char- 
acter. It  is  the  purpose  in  this  chapter  to  discuss  at 
some  length  the  different  types  of  boards,  with  typical 


110  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

organizations  under  different  units;  the  possible  co-or- 
dination of  boards  of  the  larger  and  smaller  units;  and 
to  offer  some  constructive  criticisms  of  existing  condi- 
tions and  tendencies. 

5.     Manner  of  Choosing  District  and  City  Boards 

In  our  previous  discussion  of  units  of  control  as  de- 
veloped in  the  process  of  establishing  schools  we  have 
called  attention,  in  a  casual  way,  to  the  various  kinds 
of  boards.  It  still  remains  to  discuss  these  organiza- 
tions more  in  detail  and  to  study  them  with  reference 
to  their  actual  functioning  in  the  operation  of  schools. 
Boards  of  districts  and  cities  vary  both  as  to  the  num- 
ber of  members  and  as  to  the  method  of  selecting  them. 
In  the  matter  of  numbers  the  variation  is  wide,  but  de- 
tails need  not  be  gone  into  further  on  this  point.  These 
boards  are  either  elected  by  popular  vote  or  appointed. 
In  case  of  election  by  popular  vote  two  general  practices 
prevail:  (i)  they  are  elected  at  general  elections  as  a 
part  of  the  general  political  procedure,  or  (2)  they  are 
voted  for  at  a  special  election  called  for  school  purposes 
only.  By  this  latter  method  it  is  believed  that  the  selec- 
tion of  the  members  is  more  definitely  removed  from  the 
influence  of  political  methods.  In  some  instances  an 
effort  is  made  to  select  a  board  that  is  representative  of 
the  different  sections  or  districts  of  a  city.  This  plan 
naturally  brings  into  the  board  and  its  actions  many 
local  or  sectional  contentions,  thus  causing  the  members 
not  infrequently  to  lose  sight  of  the  larger  general  in- 
terests in  their  efforts  to  adjust  merely  local  and  preju- 
diced interests.  The  present  tendency  is  to  seek  suitable 
persons  from  the  citizens  at  large  and  to  elect  those 
who  are  not  only  wilHng  to  take  the  time  and  trouble 
necessary  in  performing  this  important  service  for  the 


BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION  111 

community  but  who  are  able  to  bring  to  the  service  a 
fair  degree  of  intelligence  and  good  business  ability. 

Where  effort  is  made  to  elect  members  representative 
of  sectional  interests  there  is  very  apt  to  be  brought 
into  the  board  meetings  and  discussions,  as  suggested 
above,  many  petty  neighborhood  jealousies  and  desires 
which  should  have  no  part  in  determining  the  educa- 
tional work  of  the  city  or  district.  Such  matters  do 
not  affect  so  intimately  members  chosen  at  large,  and 
they  therefore  approach  their  work  with  a  more  judicial 
attitude  of  mind  and  act  more  in  accordance  with  the 
interests  of  the  community  as  a  whole. 

The  method  of  choosing  boards  by  appointment,  as 
generally  practised,  belongs  particularly  to  cities,  and  is 
also  seen  to  work  to  the  disadvantage  of  society  in  its 
effort  to  secure  efficiently  administered  schools.  The 
common  procedure  in  such  cases  is  to  give  the  city  execu- 
tive the  appointing  power.  As  he  is  nearly  always  a 
political  partisan  put  up  by  the  usual  machinery  of  par- 
tisan politics,  his  choice  is  apt  to  be  affected  strongly  by 
the  methods  of  the  politician  who  seeks  to  mete  out 
favors  in  exchange  for  influence  and  votes.  Further- 
more, such  a  method  carries  with  it  the  probability  of 
complete  and  abrupt,  not  to  say  frequent,  changes  in 
educational  policy  in  many  of  our  cities.  Thus  the 
whole  machinery  of  educational  administration  is  ren- 
dered unstable,  making  impossible  any  such  natural  evo- 
lution in  the  local  educational  system  as  seems  desirable 
and  necessary  to  wholesome,  logical  growth. 

6.    Term  of  Service 

This  brings  up  the  question  of  term  of  service  of  board 
members.  The  consensus  of  view  is  that  this  should  be 
for  several  years  and  the  selection  of  new  members  so 


112  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

arranged  as  to  make  the  board  a  continuous  body,  i.  e., 
with  always  a  majority  of  the  members  holding  over. 

7.     Co-ordination  of  Boards  of  Large  and  Small  Units 

There  is  little  or  no  relationship  between  boards  of 
local  districts  or  cities  and  county  or  State  boards  of 
education.  Thus  far  the  idea  of  a  logical  co-ordination 
of  these  boards  so  as  to  give  to  each  a  distinct  func- 
tion and  yet  provide  for  their  complete  co-operation  in 
carrying  forward  the  administration  of  a  State  system 
of  education  seems  to  have  received  little  attention. 
Coimty  boards,  where  they  exist,  may  have  complete 
charge  of  the  educational  interests  of  a  county  or  their 
relation  to  the  schools  may  be  a  more  or  less  formal  and 
perfunctory  contact  at  some  one  point  in  the  mechanism. 
For  instance,  the  board  may  exist  to  select  and  adopt 
text-books,  as  in  South  Dakota  and  West  Virginia;  as  a 
fiscal  agent,  as  in  Virginia  and  Florida;  for  examining 
and  certificating  teachers,  as  in  Kansas,  Michigan,  Mis- 
sissippi, Montana,  New  Jersey,  Ohio,  Oklahoma,  Oregon. 
Or  the  county  board  may  have  full  control,  as  in  Georgia,^ 
where  its  functions  are:  to  select  a  county  commissioner; 
to  divide  the  county  into  subdistricts  when  necessary, 
for  white  and  colored  races ;  to  employ  teachers ;  to  pur- 
chase, lease,  or  rent  school  sites ;  to  build  or  repair  school- 
houses;  to  decide  controversies  relating  to  school  law. 
Between  these  two  extremes  there  are  various  other 
types  of  county  boards  with  correspondingly  differing 
degrees  of  authority  and  responsibility. 

Kentucky  is  a  good  illustration  of  a  State  that  has 

^  In  Bibb  County,  Georgia,  such  a  board,  consisting  of  fifteen  members, 
is  self-perpetuating,  all  vacancies  in  the  membership  being  filled  by  the 
board  itself.  There  are  four  such  counties  in  Georgia,  operating  under 
special  charters  and  independently  of  State  laws  as  affecting  the  organ- 
ization and  administration  of  their  schools. 


BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION  113 

undertaken  to  co-ordinate  county  and  local  boards  in 
the  management  of  schools.  In  that  State  the  county 
is  the  school  unit  with  the  exception  of  the  graded-school 
districts  of  cities  and  towns,  which  are  independent. 
The  ungraded  schools  of  the  county  are  included  in  ed- 
ucational divisions  provided  for  by  statute.  Each  of 
these  divisions  has  a  board  made  up  of  the  trustees, 
one  from  each  district,  of  all  the  subdistricts  in  that 
educational  division.  The  chairmen  of  these  division 
boards  together  with  the  county  superintendent,  who 
is  the  presiding  ofl&cer,  constitute  the  county  board  of 
education.  Thus  the  county,  division,  and  subdistrict 
organizations  are  all  duly  co-ordinated. 

8.     State  Boards  of  Education 

As  to  State  boards  of  education,  the  functions,  author- 
ity, and  composition  are  of  almost  as  many  varieties  as 
there  are  States  providing  for  them.  In  composition 
most  of  them  are  partly  or  wholly  ex  officio.  When 
partly  so,  the  remaining  members,  varying  from  two  to 
eight,  are  usually  appointed  by  the  governor  of  the 
State.  Like  county  boards,  their  powers  and  duties 
range  from  that  of  selecting  text-books  or  certificating 
teachers  to  a  general  control  and  supervision  of  all  edu- 
cational interests  of  the  State.  In  extent  of  authority, 
the  Oklahoma  board,  as  established  by  the  legislature 
in  191 1,  exceeds  all  others.  It  has  complete  control  and 
authority  over  everything  educational  of  a  public  nature 
in  the  State  with  the  exception  of  the  College  of  Agri- 
culture and  Mechanic  Arts.^ 

In  this  case,  again,  no  definite  provision  is  made  for 
co-ordinate  action  with  or  through  county  and  district 
boards.  In  several  of  the  States  the  duties  and  author- 
*  See  U.  S.  Com.  Report,  191 1,  vol.  I,  pp.  76-77. 


114  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

ity  conferred  upon  these  boards  are  of  such  a  character 
as  to  indicate  that  due  consideration  was  given  to  the 
scope  and  character  of  the  smaller  unit  organizations. 
In  perhaps  as  many  other  cases  no  thought  seems  to 
have  been  given  to  setting  any  "metes  and  bounds"  to 
the  authority  of  State  boards,  on  account  of  what  might 
be  considered  the  prerogatives  of  the  smaller  and  more 
local  unit  organization.  In  other  words,  these  latter  are 
strictly  subordinated  rather  than  co-ordinated.  The 
probabilities  are  that  they  shotdd  be  neither  in  a  com- 
plete sense. 

9.    State  Institutional  Boards 

Another  form  of  State  or  district  board  has  been  es- 
tablished in  most  of  the  States  to  preside  over  the  gen- 
eral administration  of  State  educational  institutions.  In 
the  case  of  State  universities  there  are  one  or  more  boards 
selected  from  the  State  at  large.  The  number  is  deter- 
mined by  the  practice  of  the  State  in  organizing  its  uni- 
versity departments.  Where  these  are  in  two  or  more 
distinct  groups,  located  in  different  centres,  the  custom 
has  been  to  have  a  board  for  each  division.  The  ten- 
dency now  seems  to  be  toward  a  common  board  for  all 
such  institutions  in  a  given  State.  Noteworthy  illus- 
trations of  this  are  seen  in  recent  legislation  in  Iowa  and 
Kansas.  The  case  of  Oklahoma,  cited  above,  represents 
the  extreme  of  consolidation,  and  puts  all  State  institu- 
tions save  one  under  the  State  board  of  education. 

As  in  the  case  of  county  and  State  boards  of  education, 
so  in  establishing  boards  of  trustees  or  regents  for  imi- 
versity,  college,  or  normal-school  control  little  or  no 
thought  seems  to  have  been  given  to  any  logical  scheme 
of  correlation  or  co-ordination  of  their  functions  with 
those  of  other  educational  interests.    The  only  approach 


BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION  115 

to  such  an  idea  is  seen  in  making  the  State  superinten- 
dent of  education  or  instruction  an  ex-officio  member  of 
such  boards,  but  ordinarily  with  no  official  relation  def- 
initely specified. 

10.    Haphazard  Growth  of  Methods  of  Control 

All  of  this  goes  to  show  that  the  whole  matter  of  con- 
trol in  education  as  provided  for  by  society  through  legis- 
lation has  been  a  matter  of  haphazard  growth,  of  crude 
experimentation  with  untried  theories,  of  radical  move- 
ments due  to  the  dominance  of  an  extreme  view,  or  an 
overwhelming  reaction  against  some  intolerably  evil 
practice. 

The  reaction  against  political  control  of  educational 
affairs  in  Oklahoma,  for  instance,  probably  gave  that 
State  its  present  extreme  centralized  control — a  situa- 
tion no  more  rational,  yet  about  as  inevitable  as  was  an 
emperor  after  the  first  republic  in  France.  True  it  is 
that  there  is  ample  evidence  of  the  persistence  of  old 
traditions,  as  seen  in  the  coimty  unit  of  control  in  the 
South  and  again  in  the  strong,  centralized  State  control 
in  New  York  and  in  the  States  immediately  influenced 
thereby.  On  the  other  hand,  the  development  of  the  local 
district  organization  came  partly  as  a  result  of  the  ac- 
cident of  settlement  in  a  new  country,  partly  from  the 
strong  reaction  against  centralization  as  a  result  of  the 
French  and  American  Revolutions.  The  development 
of  separate  sections  of  the  university  function  in  States 
was  undoubtedly  due  in  part  to  tradition  and  in  part  to 
an  utter  lack  of  clear  understanding  on  the  part  of  law- 
makers of  what  a  State  institution  of  university  grade 
really  should  include.  But  we  should  not  omit  here  the 
influence  of  another  very  important  factor,  viz.,  the  act 
of  the  Federal  Government  in  granting  lands  to  aid  in  the 


116  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

establishment  and  support  of  institutions  for  training 
in  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts.  It  is  easy  to  see 
how  this  gave  rise  to  the  establishment  of  separate  col- 
leges of  agriculture.  The  thing  happened  not  because 
it  seemed  the  best  way  so  much  as  because  the  empha- 
sis was  put  upon  the  industrial  side  by  the  very  nature 
and  purpose  of  the  act,  and  there  was  no  established 
precedent  for  the  States  to  follow. 

II.    Persistence  of  Traditions 

Once  a  policy  is  established,  the  machinery  developed 
for  its  operation,  and  vested  interests  created,  and  there 
is  fixed  a  difficult,  if  not  insuperable,  barrier  to  future 
change  without  some  powerful  motive  by  which  to  stim- 
ulate public  sentiment  to  the  point  of  action.  Thus  it 
has  come  about  that  practices  at  first  more  or  less  ten- 
tatively entered  upon  have  passed  over  into  the  cus- 
tomary and  even  traditional.  And  so  the  example  of  a 
State  or  city  has  furnished  to  some  newer  State  or  city 
a  method  of  procedure  which,  when  duly  modified  so  as 
to  suit  local  theories  or  local  wants,  has  become  the  law 
of  the  newly  established  commonwealth. 

12.    Discussion  of  Types.    Boards  of  Rural  and 
Village  Schools 

Having  thus  reviewed  the  existing  situation  in  a  gen- 
eral way,  let  us  proceed  to  discuss  more  definitely  and 
critically  the  various  types  of  boards  as  they  have  thus 
far  developed.  Naturally,  the  starting-point  should  be 
determined  by  what  we  consider  the  most  fundamental 
and  far-reaching  aspect  of  this  factor  in  school  adminis- 
tration. Or  if  the  exact  type  for  an  ideal  treatment  is 
lacking,  then  we  may  very  properly  take  the  nearest 
approach  to  it  as  our  point  of  departure.     It  has  already 


BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION  117 

been  intimated  that  this  should  be  as  near  as  possible, 
consistently  with  efficient  management,  to  the  people 
most  directly  concerned  and  participating  in  the  support 
and  direction  of  the  schools. 

This  leads  us  directly  to  a  consideration  of  boards  of 
rural  and  village  schools.  These  are,  practically  in  every 
instance,  elected  by  the  people  of  the  commimity  which 
they  serve.  In  numbers  they  vary  from  the  single  trus- 
tee of  a  township  or  subdistrict  to  three  directors  or 
trustees  of  independent  districts.  These  boards,  except 
in  some  cases  in  New  England,  are  without  any  executive 
officers  under  them  except  such  duties  of  an  executive 
nature  as  they  may  impose  upon  the  teachers  employed. 
In  some  cases  in  village  schools  where  there  are  a  princi- 
pal and  several  teachers  this  executive  function  is  lodged 
in  the  principal.  In  the  vast  majority  of  cases,  how- 
ever, there  is  no  recognized  principal  teacher  de  facto ^ 
and  consequently  no  clearly  defined  discrimination  of 
function,  when  it  comes  to  actual  administration,  as 
between  the  teacher  and  the  board. 

13.     County  Boards 

The  first  point  in  ascent  from  the  smaller  unit  at  which 
we  find,  by  general  practice,  an  executive  officer  is  in  the 
county  unit.  Here  again  the  discrimination  of  function 
is  lacking  or  obscure.  Either  there  is  no  board,  as  is 
true  of  nineteen  States,  or  else  the  superintendent  of 
the  county  is  not  the  executive  officer  of  the  board.  In 
only  three  States  are  the  superintendents  of  county  units 
appointed  by  county  boards.  Thus  we  find  only  three 
States  in  which  the  superintendent  of  rural  schools  is 
under  a  board  of  education,  while  in  twenty-six  States 
the  superintendent  is  elected  directly  by  the  people,  and 
in  most  instances  reports  his  time  to  the  coimty  super- 


118  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

visors  as  a  basis  for  payment  of  his  salary.  He  ordi- 
narily reports  all  educational  matters  directly  to  the  State 
superintendent.  Thus  the  legislative,  executive,  and  ju- 
dicial fimctions  pertaining  to  the  management  of  rural 
schools  waver  more  or  less  impotently  between  a  local 
board  of  trustees,  with  an  entirely  lay  membership  but 
with  no  educational  executive,  and  a  quasi-educational 
executive  chosen  out  of  the  vicissitudes  of  county  poli- 
tics and  usually  called  upon  to  exercise  aU  three  of  the 
above-named  functions  for  the  rural  schools  of  an  entire 
county. 

Evidently  a  county  board  elected  by  the  people  and 
chosen  at  large,  with  authority  to  select,  appoint,  and 
fix  the  compensation  of  one  or  more  supervisory  officers 
to  look  after  the  work  of  instruction,  attendance,  health, 
and  sanitation,  and  defective,  dependent,  and  delinquent 
children,  would  be  a  desirable  solution  to  such  a  prob- 
lem. Such  a  board  should  have  the  authority  to  dis- 
trict the  county  for  both  elementary  and  high-school 
purposes,  and  also  for  purposes  of  supervision;  to  dis- 
continue schools  and  consolidate  districts  when  expe- 
dient; to  levy  and  collect  taxes;  to  provide  suitable 
school  sites  for  each  district;  to  erect  schoolhouses;  to 
provide  for  transportation  of  children  where  necessary; 
to  select  and  adopt  text-books  with  the  advice  and  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  superintendent;  to  appoint  and 
fix  the  compensation  of  teachers;  to  discuss  and  adopt 
programmes  of  study  and  regulations  governing  the 
schools  when  recommended  by  the  superintendent;  to 
co-operate  with  the  State  board  in  the  certification  of 
teachers  and  in  such  other  matters  as  demand  consider- 
ation extending  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of  single  counties. 

Some  such  plan  of  adjustment  seems  to  be  the  only 
recourse  by  which  rural  schools  may  be  organized  on  the 


BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION  119 

basis  of  highest  efficiency  in  achieving  the  purposes  for 
which  they  are  established  and  maintained.  Such  a 
county  board  should  not  exceed  five  in  number,  to  be 
chosen  from  the  county  at  large,  and  each  member  to 
serve  for  at  least  three  years.  Besides  the  general  pow- 
ers and  duties  enumerated  above,  this  board  should 
also  have  authority  to  choose  certain  advisory  boards, 
authorized  to  make  recommendations  to  the  board  of 
education  along  special  lines,  such  as  various  forms  of 
vocational  training,  music,  physical  training,  the  care 
of  defective  children,  etc, 

14.    Kentucky  Plan  of  Rural  Organization 

Provisions  somewhat  similar  for  the  handling  of  the 
rural  situation  are  not  lacking  in  actual  practice.  The 
Kentucky  plan,^  already  referred  to,  has  many  points  in 
common  with  the  plan  proposed.  Other  Southern  States 
make  provisions  somewhat  similar,  while  the  county 
boards  of  Indiana  embody  in  their  powers  and  duties 
most  of  the  functions  above  enumerated.  The  logic  of 
such  an  arrangement  is  readily  apparent.  The  schools 
are  created  by  the  people  and  the  people  pay  the  cost.  A 
board  elected  by  the  people  thus  becomes  their  represen- 
tative body  to  transact  the  business  of  the  schools.  The 
people  can  be  trusted  to  select  lay  members  for  such  a 
board.  They  will  probably  succeed  oftener  in  making 
a  wise  selection  than  will  any  appointive  body.  But 
when  it  comes  to  the  selection  of  educational  experts  to 
superintend  instruction  or  to  teach  in  the  schools,  all  ex- 
perience is  directly  and  emphatically  opposed  to  elec- 
tion by  popular  vote.  This  principle  will  hold  good  at 
any  point  or  for  any  unit  of  control  of  our  educational 
system. 

» See  pp.  1 1 2-1 3  of  this  chapter. 


120  ADMINISTRATION  OF   EDUCATION 

15.     City  Boards 

As  has  been  said  in  another  chapter,  city  units  of  con- 
trol have  come  about  in  a.  pecuHar  way.  It  is  in  the 
nature  of  the  case  that  they  should  represent  a  peculiar 
problem  in  our  plans  for  the  conduct  of  our  system  of 
education.  In  nearly  all  instances  cities  have  been  con- 
sidered by  legislatures  as  apart  from  other  units.  At  the 
same  time  education  in  cities  as  in  other  subdivisions  of 
the  State  has  been  held  as  a  distinct  function  of  society 
quite  apart,  in  all  essential  phases  of  its  administration, 
from  other  functions  of  government.  In  this  sense 
boards  of  education  have  nearly  always  been  given  a  dis- 
tinct corporate  existence  under  the  laws  of  States.  They 
are  usually  given  all  the  powers  and  duties  necessary  to 
the  complete  organization,  equipment,  and  maintenance 
of  schools  without  interference  from  other  departments 
of  city,  county,  or  State  governments. 

It  is  important,  also,  in  this  connection,  to  bear  in 
mind  that  in  no  case  except  that  of  the  State  itself  is 
the  territorial  unit  of  control  necessarily  co-extensive 
with  political  units  of  control.  That  the  State  even  is 
an  exception  is  plainly  accounted  for  on  the  ground  that 
it  is  the  original  lawgiving  body  of  society  for  all  mat- 
ters pertaining  to  the  management  of  schools. 

Thus  city  boards  of  education  have  always  enjoyed 
an  autonomy  more  or  less  marked  and  distinct  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  other  educational  bodies  having  a 
similar  function.  As  a  result  the  evolution  of  the  city 
board  has  been  more  logical  than  that  of  other  boards. 
It  has  been,  in  the  main,  a  result  of  the  effort  of  society 
to  establish  a  smaller  representative  body  intended  to 
act  for  society  in  the  actual  establishment  and  conduct 
of  the  schools.     Itself  composed  of  laymen,  it  has,  al- 


BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION  121 

most  from  the  first,  sought  an  expert  executive  especially 
for  the  administration  of  instruction.  Other  matters, 
such  as  the  business  side  of  administration;  the  laying 
out,  construction,  and  supervision  of  grounds  and  build- 
ings; health,  attendance,  and  the  care  of  defectives,  have 
been  met  in  different  ways,  chiefly  these  three:  (i)  com- 
mittees of  the  board  have  been  charged  with  them;  (2) 
separate  departments  headed  by  experts  have  been  set 
up;  or  (3)  all  have  been  assigned  more  or  less  definitely 
to  the  one  executive  along  with  the  supervision  of  in- 
struction. 

16.    The  Committee  System 

In  the  committee  system  we  have  again  the  layman 
assuming  the  duties  of  the  expert.  The  plan  of  leaving 
all  to  one  executive  head,  common  in  smaller  cities,  with- 
out giving  him  special  expert  assistants,  practically  ig- 
nores the  modern  idea  of  expert  service.  For  this  is  not 
an  age  when  men  can  readily  become  experts  in  three  or 
four  widely  divergent  lines.  Yet  where  the  system  is 
too  small  good  economy  forbids  any  such  specialization 
in  experts.  In  such  instances  the  principle  of  the  ad- 
visory committee  working  in  conjunction  with  a  single 
executive  may  be  found  helpful. 

17.      Methods  of  Selection  of  City  Boards 

The  prevailing  method  of  selection  of  city  boards  has 
been  by  election  although  not  always  for  the  city  at 
large.  As  has  already  been  pointed  out,  the  method  of 
representation  by  subdistricts  or  wards  has  not  been 
successful.  This  idea  of  representation  might  be  much 
better  provided  for  by  some  scheme  such  as  just  referred 
to  for  the  selection  of  advisory  boards  representing  not 
different  sections  of  the  city  but  different  educational 


122  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

interests,  as  vocational,  musical,  physical,  or  the  care  of 
special  classes.  By  such  a  plan,  carefully  worked  out, 
boards  might  call  to  their  assistance  bodies  of  experts 
whose  advice  would  be  exceedingly  helpful  and  enlight- 
ening with  regard  to  these  great  problems  of  educational 
development  which  are  constantly  up  for  their  consid- 
eration. 

1 8.    Special  Investigations  as  Related  to  City  Boards 

The  problem  of  city  boards  of  education  has  attracted 
much  attention  in  recent  years.  It  has  been  ably  dis- 
cussed at  various  sessions  of  the  National  Education 
Association.  It  has  been  made  the  subject  of  special 
inquiry  and  investigation  by  different  cities.  This  was 
done  for  the  city  of  Chicago  in  1898,  when  an  educa- 
tional commission  of  eleven  members,  representative  of 
different  interests,  was  appointed  by  the  mayor.  This 
commission  was  presided  over  by  the  late  President 
William  R.  Harper,  and  many  of  the  leading  educational 
experts  of  the  country  were  called  into  consultation.  An 
exhaustive  report  of  the  work  of  the  commission  was 
published  by  the  city.^ 

More  recently  special  expert  investigations  have  been 
conducted,  notably  in  Baltimore,  New  York  City,  and 
Portland,  Ore.  The  published  reports^  of  these  in- 
vestigations contain  important  criticisms  and  recom- 
mendations with  regard  to  the  boards  of  education.    In 

^  Report  of  the  Educational  Commission  of  the  City  of  Chicago, 
Chicago,  1899. 

*  Report  of  Conmiission  Appointed  to  Study  the  System  of  Education 
of  the  Public  Schools  of  Baltimore,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin 
no.  4, 1911.  "How  New  York  City  Administers  Its  Schools,"  E.C.Moore 
("School  Efl&ciency  Series,"  Hanus),  World  Book  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1913. 
Report  of  the  Survey  of  the  Public  School  System  of  School  District 
No.  I,  Multnomah  County,  Oregon,  City  of  Portland,  Nov.  i,  1913. 


BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION  123 

the  j&rst  two  cities  it  happens  that  the  department  of 
education,  instead  of  being  an  independent  corporation 
of  an  independent  school  district,  is  administered  under 
a  department  or  departments  of  municipal  government. 
The  recommendations  made  in  both  instances  are 
strongly  against  placing  such  limitations  upon  the  ad- 
ministration as  naturally  arise  where  political  methods 
enter  into  the  selection  and  appointment  of  any  of  the  ofl5- 
cials  or  experts  connected  with  the  conduct  of  education. 
Nearly  all  critics  agree,  also,  that  the  board  of  educa- 
tion of  a  city  should  be  a  comparatively  small  body. 
Various  numbers  are  suggested,  but  in  most  cases  three 
to  seven  members  are  designated  as  sufficient.  The  term 
of  office  generally  proposed  is  at  least  three  years,  with 
a  minority  of  the  members  chosen  each  year,  thus  mak- 
ing the  body  continuous. 

19.     Make-up  of  an  Ideal  City  Board 

If  we  were  to  embody  in  one  statement  all  the  impor- 
tant points  which  go  to  make  up  an  ideal  board  for  trans- 
acting the  business  of  the  schools  and  enacting  the  nec- 
essary legislation  for  their  government  under  the  city 
charter  or  the  general  State  law,  as  the  case  may  be,  it 
would  read  about  as  follows:  The  board  of  education 
of  a  city  should  consist  of  three  to  seven  members,  vary- 
ing with  the  size  of  the  city  concerned.  These  members, 
chosen  at  large  from  the  city,  should  be  elected  by  the 
people,  and  should  serve  for  a  term  of  three  to  five 
years  without  pay.  One  new  member  should  be  chosen 
each  year,  thus  making  the  board  a  continuous  body. 
They  should  be  both  politically  and  financially  inde- 
pendent of  other  departments  of  municipal  govern- 
ment. They  should  be  empowered  and  required  to 
choose  experts  to  supervise  (i)   the  work  of  instruc- 


124  ADMINISTRATION  OF   EDUCATION 

tion;  (2)  the  business  management  and  supplies;  (3) 
the  selection  of  sites  and  the  erection  and  care  of  build- 
ings; (4)  attendance;  (5)  health  and  hygiene;  (6)  phys- 
ical education,  including  playgrounds;  (7)  the  segrega- 
tion and  care  of  special  classes.  These  experts  would 
better  be  under  one  executive  head,  especially  in  our 
largest  cities.  At  any  rate,  the  superintendents  of  in- 
struction should  have  certain  authority  where  their 
functions  impinge  upon  the  instructional  work  of  the 
schools.  In  addition  to  these  expert  departments  pro- 
vision should  be  made  for  the  appointment  of  suitable 
advisory  committees  or  boards,  which  the  board  of 
education  might  call  into  council  whenever  the  situation 
demanded  or  whenever  any  particular  industrial  or  so- 
cial interest  of  the  city  might  desire  a  hearing  with  ref- 
erence to  the  claims  of  such  interest  upon  the  educational 
work  of  the  public  schools. 

Such  a  board,  aided  and  supported  by  such  advice  and 
council  as  these  experts  and  special  advisory  conmiittees 
might  give,  and  invested  with  proper  authority  along 
all  fundamental  lines  essential  to  the  establishment, 
organization,  equipment,  and  maintenance  of  schools, 
should  be  able  to  function  effectively  in  the  accomplish- 
ment of  that  for  which  school  boards  are  created — the 
training,  under  the  most  approved  conditions  and  in  the 
most  scientific  manner,  of  all  the  children  and  youth  of 
the  community  which  they  are  called  to  serve. 

20.     The  State  Type  of  Board 

The  third  general  type  of  educational  board  is  a  State 
board.^     As  stated  earher  in  this  chapter,  such  boards 

*  This  will  include  also  such  district  boards  of  the  State  as  might  be 
called  to  preside  over  one  of  several  normal  schools,  since  their  character 
is  essentially  the  same. 


BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION  125 

may  be  established  to  direct  general  educational  inter- 
ests or  to  preside  over  the  fiscal  interests  and  formulate 
the  general  rules  of  operation  of  one  or  several  State 
institutions.  As  has  been  pointed  out,  the  practice  is 
greatly  varied.  A  different  situation  is  presented  when 
State-wide  direction  is  to  be  substituted  for  city,  dis- 
trict, or  even  county  control.  There  is  not  that  oppor- 
tunity for  direct  participation  which  holds  in  case  of  the 
smaller  units.  There  is  felt  something  of  the  need  of 
applying  the  principle  of  participation  through  represen- 
tation in  a  larger  and  more  general  way  than  by  direct 
selection  by  the  people.  At  the  same  time  the  principle 
of  a  distinct  jurisdiction  and  control  for  educational 
purposes  may  still  be  applied.  The  policy  of  separa- 
tion from  both  ecclesiastical  control  and  the  limitations 
caused  by  the  vicissitudes  of  party  politics  should  be 
just  as  rigidly  adhered  to  in  case  of  the  larger  unit  as 
of  the  smaller,  and  even  more  so. 

21.    Function  of  State  Boards  Confused  Between 
Two  Ideals 

It  seems  that  through  the  more  or  less  uncertain  course 
which  our  educational  evolution  has  taken  some  curious 
incongruities  have  crept  in.  This  is  strikingly  true  of 
the  manner  in  which  the  problem  of  organizing  the  ad- 
ministrative control  of  the  State  as  an  educational  unit 
has  been  handled.  Two  radically  opposing  ideas  have 
contended  for  popular  support:  (i)  the  rather  imperial- 
istic idea  of  complete  control  over  the  entire  system  of 
schools  of  a  State  to  be  vested  in  a  central  personage  or 
board;  (2)  the  democratic  idea  of  representation  of  the 
people  at  every  stage  of  the  process,  with  diminishing 
authority  in  local  affairs  as  distance  from  the  people,  be- 
cause of  wider  area  in  the  unit,  has  increased. 


126  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

The  relation  of  State  supervision  and  State  boards  of 
education  to  the  general  administration  of  education 
seems  to  have  been  confused  between  these  two  ideals, 
and  in  the  confusion  has  become  more  or  less  mixed 
with  State  politics,  usually  to  the  detriment  of  the  cause 
of  pubUc  education.  A  similar  condition  is  seen  in  the 
present  county  control  which  prevails  imder  county  su- 
pervision in  many  of  the  States.  In  the  case  of  New 
York  we  see  the  hand  of  Hamilton  and  his  idea  of  cen- 
tralized control.  But  even  here  the  struggle  was  a  long 
one.  The  regency  established  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century  was  to  have  control  of  all  educational 
institutions,  including  secondary  schools.  But  no  ade- 
quate provision  was  anywhere  made  for  common  schools. 
In  1812  there  was  established,  as  a  result  of  this  neglect 
of  common  schools,  the  office  of  State  superintendent  of 
common  schools.  This  was  abolished  in  182 1,  and  the 
secretary  of  State  performed  the  fimctions  of  the  super- 
intendent as  an  ex-officio  appointment.  In  1854  the 
superintendency  was  again  restored,  and  the  dual  sys- 
tem of  an  unrelated  superintendent  and  board  of  regents 
continued  until  1904,  when  the  present  scheme  was  pro- 
jected which  places  all  educational  interests  in  the  hands 
of  the  regency  having  as  its  executive  the  commissioner 
of  education,  whose  tenure  of  office  is  subject  to  that 
body. 

In  New  England  a  very  dififerent  situation  has  devel- 
oped. As  a  result  of  the  educational  revival  led  by 
Carter  and  Mann,  there  was  established  in  Massachu- 
setts, in  1837,  a  State  board  of  education,  with  power  to 
choose  an  executive.  The  first  of  these,  known  as  sec- 
retary of  the  State  board  of  education,  was  Horace 
Mann.  In  1909  a  new  board  was  provided  for  in  Massa- 
chusetts, and  the  name  of  the  executive  was  changed  to 


BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION  127 

that  of  commissioner.  The  State  board  is  partially  ex 
officio  but  mostly  appointive  in  composition.  The  ap- 
pointments are  made  by  the  governor.  Two  other  States 
of  New  England,  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island,  have 
an  executive  appointed  by  a  State  board  of  education. 
The  other  three  New  England  States  have  no  boards 
but  an  executive  appointed  by  the  governor  in  two  in- 
stances, Maine  and  New  Hampshire,  and  by  the  general 
assembly  in  Vermont.  In  each  of  the  three  cases  where 
boards  are  provided  for  these  bodies  possess  but  little 
real  power  or  authority.  The  same  is  true  of  the  execu- 
tives of  the  remaining  three  States.  In  each  of  the  six 
States  the  powers  delegated  are  general  and  advisory 
rather  than  specifically  giving  authority  over  local  school 
systems. 

Here  we  see  manifested  a  strong  efifort  to  combine 
with  the  idea  of  democratic  control  the  larger  correlating 
influence  of  a  State-wide  administrative  body  or  office. 
Of  the  thirteen  Southern  States — Alabama,  Arkansas, 
Florida,  Georgia,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Maryland,  Mis- 
sissippi, North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Tennessee, 
Texas,  Virginia — eleven  have  State  boards,  mostly  ex  of- 
ficio, and  each  has  a  superintendent,  all  but  two  of  whom 
are  chosen  by  popular  election.  Nine  of  the  thirteen 
superintendents  are  ex-officio  members  of  the  State 
boards.  The  powers  and  duties  in  nearly  every  case 
are  general  and  advisory,  as  in  the  case  of  the  New  En- 
gland group.    The  idea  of  democratic  control  dominates. 

Still  another  situation  exists  in  Pennsylvania,  where 
both  a  State  board  and  a  superintendent  are  appointed 
by  the  governor,  and  the  superintendent  is  ex-officio 
president  of  the  board.  Thus  the  situation  is  turned 
about  and  the  board  is,  in  a  sense,  made  the  instrument 
of  the  superintendent.     Out  of  these  types,  not  forgetting 


128  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

the  idea  expressed  in  the  election  of  the  first  State  super- 
intendent by  the  State  of  New  York,  have  come,  through 
numerous  and  varied  combinations  and  amendings,  all 
the  other  types  of  organization  of  the  State  as  a  unit  of 
control. 

22.  Trustees  and  Regents  of  State  Institutions 

There  remains  in  this  connection,  however,  that  other 
t)^e  of  State  board,  the  trustees  or  regents  having  con- 
trol over  the  business  of  conducting  State  educational 
institutions.  Here  again  the  practice  varies  somewhat 
widely  among  the  States.  Recent  years  have  seen  a 
tendency  toward  one  State  board  to  control  all  agencies 
for  advanced,  professional,  or  special  education.  As  has 
already  been  seen,  the  State  boards  in  New  York  and 
Oklahoma  control  practically  all  these  higher  educa- 
tional agencies  of  these  States.  From  this  type  the  range 
extends  down  to  a  condition  where  there  may  exist  not 
only  a  State  board  but  also  a  separate  board  for  each 
of  several  normal  schools,  for  each  of  the  subdivisions 
of  the  university,  and  for  each  institution  for  the  educa- 
tion of  special  or  defective  and  deUnquent  classes.  Until 
recently,  Florida  as  well  as  several  of  the  North  Central 
group  of  States  would  illustrate  such  a  situation.  The 
movement  is  fortunately  away  from  such  a  policy. 

23.  Application  of  Principles  of  Control  to  State 

Types 

If  we  carry  over  to  this  unit  the  application  of  the 
same  general  principles  of  control  that  have  been  em- 
phasized in  the  discussion  of  preceding  units  we  shall 
find  that,  after  all  the  general  confusion  of  ideals  is 
replaced  by  the  dominant  features  that  stand  out  in  a 
great  majority  of  the  States,  we  have  not  so  far  to  go 


BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION  129 

to  reach  common  ground.  But  we  shall  look  in  vain 
for  any  near  approach  to  an  ideal  situation  in  this  re- 
spect. 

We  shall  probably  agree  that  the  State  board  should 
prevail,  but  not  as  to  whether  there  should  be  one  or 
several  boards.  We  shall  also  approve  an  executive  for 
this  board  or  these  boards;  New  England  will  furnish 
us  the  type.  But  how  shall  the  board  or  boards  be 
chosen,  and  what  shall  be  their  relation  to  the  general 
State-wide  system  of  education — elementary,  secondary, 
higher,  special? 

24.    How  to  Make  State  Boards  Representative 
in  Character 

Adhering  to  the  idea  that  the  interest  of  society  in 
an  institution  is  to  be  determined  largely  by  the  extent 
of  its  participation  in  projecting  its  operations,  espe- 
cially where  society  is  called  upon  to  finance  it,  we  are 
brought  again  to  the  principle  of  a  more  or  less  direct 
representation  in  management.  To  accomplish  this, 
such  boards  should  be  chosen  either  by  a  representative 
body  or  by  direct  election  by  the  people.  Like  city  and 
county  boards,  the  members  should  be  selected  from  the 
State  at  large,  and  their  selection  should  be  non-partisan. 

All  things  considered,  popular  election  seems  to  have 
most  in  its  favor.  This  may  be  in  connection  with 
general  elections,  but  on  a  separate  ballot  with  separate 
election  officials  to  make  the  returns.  One  board,  a 
State  education  board,  would  be  preferable,  if  rightly 
constituted.  Such  a  board  should  be  relatively  small, 
not  exceeding  seven  members;  should  be  a  continuous 
organization  serving  without  pay,  except  necessary  ex- 
penses; should  have  control  and  oversight  in  a  business 
way  of   all  educational  interests  of  State- wide  scope; 


130  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

should  have  the  co-operation  of  several  advisory  boards 
representing:  (a)  institutions  of  higher  learning,  (b) 
schools  for  the  training  of  teachers,  both  secondary  and 
of  college  grade,  (c)  secondary  schools,  (d)  elementary 
schools,  (e)  schools  and  institutions  for  the  training  of 
defective  and  delinquent  classes;  and  should  also  have 
authority  to  appoint  various  executive,  supervisory,  or 
inspectorial  officers,  to  act  either  independently  or  under 
one  executive  head — preferably  the  latter. 

Such  a  board,  with  a  competent  executive  staff  and 
well-chosen  advisory  boards,  would  be  a  much  more 
effective  power  for  the  development  of  the  educational 
interests  of  a  State  than  are  most  of  the  conditions  now 
existing  in  the  various  States.  It  would  command  the 
confidence  of  the  taxpayers  as  well  as  of  the  educational 
public.  It  would  harmonize,  economize,  and  correlate 
in  all  departments  of  educational  endeavor.  Through 
it  laws  would  find  interpretation  and  enforcement;  all 
teachers  would  be  duly  certificated  and  their  training 
assured;  the  financial  burden  and  responsibility  for  edu- 
cation would  be  duly  distributed;  proper  and  sufficient 
means  for  efficient  supervision  and  inspection  would  be 
provided;  all  interrelationships  of  different  departments 
and  institutions  of  education  would  be  properly  ad- 
justed. 

The  alternative  plan  would  seem  to  be  four  separate 
boards  from  the  State  at  large,  similarly  chosen,  but 
representing  rather  distinctly:  (a)  State  institutions  rep- 
resenting imiversity  work,  (b)  institutions  for  the  train- 
ing of  teachers,  (c)  institutions  for  the  training  of  de- 
fectives and  delinquent  classes,  and  (d)  all  State- wide 
interests  of  elementary  and  secondary  education,  as  in  a 
State  department.  In  this  case  there  would  need  to 
be  one  or  more  executives,  especially  for  (d) ,  and  prob- 


BOARDS  OF  EDUCATION  131 

ably  for  (a)  and  (&).  Some  plan  for  co-operation  would 
have  to  be  found  so  as  to  avoid  conflicts  or  overlapping 
at  the  points  and  lines  of  contact  and  interrelationship. 
It  must  seem  evident  that,  where  at  all  practicable  in 
view  of  established  custom  and  vested  interests,  the 
plan  of  a  unified  central  board  responsible  to  the  people 
and  created  solely  for  educational  control  is  the  more 
desirable  one. 

25.    Necessity  of  Independence  of  State  Boards 

It  remains  only  to  be  said  that,  just  as  in  the  case  of 
cities,  a  State  board  should  be  independent  of  inter- 
ference by  the  other  departments  of  government  having 
to  do  with  political  affairs.  The  idea  of  a  State  depart- 
ment of  education  subject  to  the  vicissitudes  and  changes 
of  partisan  political  machines  is  an  anomaly  in  the 
realm  of  State  systems  of  education.  In  this  respect 
our  statesmen  have  shown  greater  widsom  than  our 
educators.  For  even  in  our  national  interests  in  educa- 
tion a  national  board  with  an  executive  staff  and  with 
various  advisory  commissions  is  more  in  accord  with 
the  whole  spirit  of  our  educational  growth  and  aims  than 
would  be  a  secretary  of  education  on  a  footing  with  other 
members  of  a  presidential  cabinet.  Such  a  national 
board,  with  a  clearly  defined  field  of  operation  that 
should  include  oversight  of  all  the  great  nation-wide 
and  international  interests  and  relationships  of  educa- 
tion, would  become  a  power  for  accomplishment  such  as 
no  secretaryship  could  ever  hope  to  bring  to  the  cause  of 
education. 

Thus  the  same  principles,  fundamentally,  may  apply 
to  all  the  t)^es  of  educational  boards  making  up  our 
general  scheme  of  control.  Perhaps  no  better  summing 
up  for  this  chapter  can  be  found  than  the  following, 


132  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

on  "The  Functions  of  a  Board  of  Education,"  from 
Professor  Ernest  C.  Moore's  report  on  "How  New 
York  City  Administers  Its  Schools":^  "Its  functions," 
he  says,  "are  not  executive,  but  legislative,  deliberative, 
advisory,  and  report-hearing.  In  the  nature  of  the  case- 
being  a  lay  body,  it  cannot  itself  nm  the  schools.  In- 
stead, it  is  there  to  represent  the  people  by  performing 
for  them  certain  delegated  functions  of  selecting  ex- 
perts to  run  the  schools,  advising  with  them  as  to  how 
the  people  would  have  public  education  conducted,  ex- 
amining into  the  sufficiency  of  their  plans,  passing  upon 
their  reports  of  results,  and  maintaining  a  general  over- 
sight over  all  that  they  do,  upholding  and  protecting 
them  in  their  work  as  long  as  it  is  satisfactory,  and  put- 
ting others  in  their  places  as  soon  as  it  ceases  to  be  so." 

'  P.  89  of  Doctor  Moore's  report. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

MAINTENANCE  AND  OTHER  FISCAL  ASPECTS  OF  PUBLIC 
EDUCATION 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  fact  that  the 
early  schools  were  a  function  of  the  church.  This  was 
true  in  early  New  England  as  well  as  in  European  coun- 
tries. But  it  was  a  fundamental  doctrine  of  the  Refor- 
mation that  the  people  should  share  in  common  the 
advantages  of  education.  From  this  standpoint  secu- 
larization of  the  schools  was  inevitable.  NaturaUy,  the 
next  step  was  that  of  maintenance  at  public  cost  so  that 
rich  and  poor  alike  might  share  freely  in  the  benefits  of 
learning. 

I.    Evolution  of  the  Idea  of  Popular  Support  of 
Schools 

In  the  general  court  edict  of  1647  Massachusetts  pro- 
vided for  the  support  of  schools  by  taxation,  subject  to 
the  option  of  the  local  taxing  unit.  The  first  provincial 
assembly  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  imder  the  charter  by 
King  William  granted  in  169 1,  decreed  again  that  "select- 
men were  empowered  to  assess  the  inhabitants  of  the 
towns  for  the  charges  of  the  ministry,  the  schools  and 
the  poor  according  to  the  agreement  of  the  major  part 
of  inhabitants  in  town  meeting."  ^  Connecticut  early 
followed  a  similar  course.  The  movement  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  grammar-schools   throughout  the  colonies 

'  Quoted  from  Clews,  "  Education  in  the  Colonies,"  p.  64,  foot-note. 

133 


134  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

generally  carried  with  it  the  idea  of  popular  support. 
So  also  in  the  estabUshment  of  the  first  colleges,  recourse 
was  had,  early  in  their  history,  to  the  use  of  public  funds 
to  aid  in  their  support. 

When  later  the  growth  of  the  settlements,  together 
with  increasing  complexities  of  church  control  of  edu- 
cation, brought  about  a  growing  demand  for  a  more 
complete  secularization  of  the  schools,  there  was  a  pe- 
riod of  decline  in  education.  To  tide  over  this  period, 
land  grants,  which  had  been  made  from  the  beginning 
to  a  limited  extent,  now  became  more  frequent.  Com- 
missioner Barnard,  in  his  report  for  1867-8,  quotes  from 
the  report  of  Lyman  Draper,  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  as  follows:  "In  the  early  history  of  almost 
every  town  in  every  State  of  New  England,  a  portion  of 
the  public  land  was  reserved,  or  special  grants  were  made 
by  individuals  for  'gospel'  and  school  purposes." 

We  are  told  also  that  Pennsylvania,  in  the  law  of  1802, 
sought  to  provide  free  education  for  the  poor  as  a  class. 
The  attempt  failed,  but  the  failure  gave  rise  to  the  idea 
of  free  schools  for  all  classes.^  History  shows  that  in 
other  States  similar  provisions  were  attempted.  This 
calls  attention  to  another  cause  for  the  decline  in  edu- 
cation to  which  reference  has  been  made  above.  The 
well-to-do  classes,  especially  in  the  plantation  colonies, 
looked  upon  the  idea  of  free  education  as  a  form  of 
charity.  The  same  idea  revived  with  considerable  force 
during  reconstruction  days  in  the  South,  when  public 
schools  were  everywhere  known  as  "poverty  schools." 

But  gradually  the  idea  of  free  schools  at  public  cost 
gained  in  the  minds  of  the  people.  The  action  of  Con- 
gress in  the  ordinance  of  1785,  confirmed  again  in  1787, 

'  Carlton,  F.  T.,  "Economic  Influences  upon  Educational  Progress  in 
the  United  States,  1820-50." 


MAINTENANCE  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION      135 

appropriating  lands  for  the  endowment  of  public  schools, 
was  a  great  gain  to  the  cause  of  free  public  education. 
A  strong  prejudice  against  direct  taxation  was  one  of  the 
traditions  brought  from  England.  This,  together  with 
the  antagonism  of  some  religious  denominations  whose 
adherents  still  believed  education  to  be  solely  a  function 
of  the  church,  made  the  progress,  in  many  localities,  very 
slow.  The  timely  aid  which  came  through  the  national 
grant  of  school  lands  seems  to  have  been  almost  neces- 
sary in  order  to  stimulate  the  flagging  sentiment  of  the 
people  to  the  point  of  willingness  to  do  their  part  in 
maintaining  free  schools  for  all. 

2.    Forces  Favorable  and  Unfavorable 

Carlton^  finds  four  fundamental  influences  at  work 
during  the  period  from  1820  to  1850,  all  operating  fa- 
vorably for  the  cause  of  popular  education  supported 
by  taxation.  These  were:  (i)  Growth  of  population 
and  of  manufactures.  This  caused  a  rapid  increase  of 
urban  populations,  at  the  same  time  disintegrating  the 
earlier  colonial  industrial  situation.  Such  a  concentra- 
tion of  varied  interests  was  favorable  to  the  growth  of 
free  schools.  (2)  Extension  of  the  suffrage.  This  put 
the  baUot  in  the  hands  of  the  large  mass  of  working  men 
in  the  cities.  Their  thirst  for  equality  of  opportunity 
put  them  in  favor  of  tax-supported  schools.  (3)  The 
humanitarian  movement,  which  was  also  an  outgrowth 
of  urban  concentration  of  population.  The  various  hu- 
mane societies  saw  in  pubHc  education  the  only  effective 
panacea  for  many  of  the  worst  evils  growing  out  of  the 
sudden  transfer  of  social  and  industrial  centres  from 
country,  village,  and  hamlet  to  the  crowded  city.  (4) 
The  labor  movement  which  gave  to  society  and  politics 

•  Op.  cit.,  pp.  29-44. 


136  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

a  newly  organized  force  which  must  be  reckoned  with, 
and  always  on  the  side  of  equal  opportunity  for  the 
working  man's  children. 

The  above  forces  are,  even  to-day,  among  the  chief 
stimuli  to  social  activity  for  the  betterment  of  our  edu- 
cational system.  Two  other  forces  at  least  may  be 
added  which  are  of  more  recent  development,  or,  to 
speak  more  accurately,  have  more  recently  emerged  in 
social  consciousness.  The  first  of  these  is  the  abolition 
of  the  institution  of  slavery.  Throughout  the  former 
slave  territory  a  radical  change  has  come  about  in  favor 
of  free  pubhc  schools  for  all  classes.  A  new  industrial 
life  is  demanding  a  wider  and  higher  intelligence.  The 
problem  is  especially  accentuated  by  the  presence,  in 
large  numbers,  of  the  descendants  of  former  slaves.  In 
this  latter  aspect,  indeed,  the  problem  is  coming  to  be 
realized  as  nation  wide. 

A  second  condition  which  is  now  stirring  the  thought 
of  all  people,  in  all  sections  of  our  country,  is  to  be 
found  in  the  changed  conditions  in  our  agricultural  in- 
terests. Individual  landholders  are  rapidly  diminishing 
in  numbers.  Tenant-farming  is  coming  to  be  the  rule. 
Along  with  this  change  is  coming  the  realization  that  to 
keep  pace  in  the  production  of  farm  crops  with  the 
rapid  growth  in  population  and  in  diversified  industries, 
there  must  be  more  attention  given  to  the  scientific 
treatment  of  soUs.  This  calls  for  a  higher  and  more 
generally  diffused  intelligence  on  the  part  of  those  who 
operate  the  farms.  At  the  same  time,  in  order  to  keep 
intelligent  men  on  the  farms,  more  attention  must  be 
given  to  the  needs  and  interests  of  country  life.  But 
all  this  means  better  schools  for  the  rural  communities. 
Landholders,  who  are  probably  the  slowest  and  most 
reluctant  of  all  classes  to  respond,  are  gradually  awaken- 


MAINTENANCE  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION     137 

ing  to  the  fact  that  good  tax-supported  rural  schools, 
including  high  schools,  bear  a  very  direct  relation  to 
the  prospective  incomes  from  farm  lands.  Thus  is  one 
of  the  last  and  most  persistent  obstacles  to  free  schools 
after  the  real  American  ideal  slowly  giving  way. 

3.     Summary  of  Arguments 

Referring  once  more  to  Carlton/  we  cannot  do  better 
than  to  quote  his  list  of  arguments  for  and  against  free 
tax-supported  schools.  The  arguments  for  are:  "(i) 
Education  is  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  free  insti- 
tutions. (2)  It  prevents  class  differentiation.  (3)  Edu- 
cation tends  to  diminish  crime.  (4)  It  reduces  the 
amount  of  poverty  and  distress.  (5)  It  increases  pro- 
duction. (6)  Education  is  the  natural  right  of  all  in- 
dividuals. (7)  Education  will  rectify  false  ideas  as  to 
unjust  distribution  of  wealth." 

The  arguments  given  as  against  the  proposition  are: 
"(i)  Free  education  for  all  increases  taxation  unduly. 

(2)  Taxation  for  the  purposes  of  maintaining  free  public 
schools  is  a  violation  of  the  rights  of  the  individual. 

(3)  A  public  system  of  schools  was  opposed  by  certain 
religious  elements  because  of  possible  injury  to  particu- 
lar religious  sects.  (4)  Certain  non-English-speaking 
people  opposed  the  public  schools  because  they  feared 
that  their  own  tongue  would  be  supplanted  by  the  Eng- 
lish language.  (5)  Impractical  legislation  caused  much 
opposition.  (6)  It  was  urged  that  education  would  not 
benefit  the  masses.  (7)  Injury  to  the  private  school  was 
alleged.  (8)  Public  education  tends  to  break  down  so- 
cial barriers."  The  same  writer  suggests  another  ad- 
verse influence  in  the  form  of  the  "increasing  opportu- 
nity to  put  children  to  work  in  factories." 

'  Op.  cit.,  pp.  45-46. 


138  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

This  gives  us  a  very  clear  and  full  presentation  of  the 
principles  and  forces  which  were  lined  up  in  the  strug- 
gle which  was  waged  in  the  early  days  of  American 
free  schools.  In  1867-8  we  find  United  States  Commis- 
sioner Henry  Barnard  ^  quoting  various  opinions  concern- 
ing the  American  policy  in  regard  to  taxation  for  educa- 
tional purposes.  The  substance  of  these  opinions  may 
be  summed  up  as  follows:  The  exercise  of  power  over 
education  by  the  State  is  indispensable  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  society.  This  is  not  so  merely  as  a  matter  of 
expediency  or  economy,  it  is  a  question  of  humanity 
also.  Free  public  education  is  necessary  in  order  to 
preserve  representative  government.  Even  higher  edu- 
cation should  receive  the  fostering  care  of  the  State  in 
order  to  provide  for  the  maintenance  of  schools  of  stand- 
ards superior  to  those  already  established. 

In  1889,  in  the  first  report  issued  under  William  T. 
Harris  as  commissioner ,2  is  given  a  long  list  of  reasons 
why  parochial  schools  should  have  a  due  proportion 
of  the  public  school  funds.  The  first  of  these  reads: 
"Because  all  who  pay  taxes  ought  to  share  in  the  bene- 
fits of  taxation."  On  the  following  page  of  the  same 
report  is  given  a  reply  to  this  sentiment  which  is  worthy 
of  note.  This  reply  was  published  by  the  Journal  of 
Education  and  is  quoted  from  the  1888-9  commissioner's 
report.3  *'In  regard  to  the  assertion  that  'all  who  pay 
taxes  ought  to  share  in  the  benefits  of  taxation,'  the 
Journal  oj  Education  says :  '  This  is  in  no  sense  an  Ameri- 
can axiom  or  principle.  It  has  nothing  whatever  to  do 
with  the  policy  of  American  life.  We  do  not  tax  a  man, 
but  his  property.    We  do  not  tax  the  property  in  pro- 

*  Report  of  Com.  of  Education,  1867-8,  pp.  323-330. 

*  Report  of  Com.  of  Education,  1888-9,  P-  634. 
»  U.  S.  Com.  Report,  1888-9,  p.  635. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION      139 

portion  to  the  share  of  benefit  the  owner  is  to  receive. 
A  man's  property  may  be  taxed  so  that  thousands  of 
dollars  shall  be  used  in  highways,  though  he  may  never 
be  able  to  ride  upon  them  or  see  them,  and  may  have 
no  family  to  enjoy  them;  thousands  may  be  used  for 
schools,  though  he  was  never  in  a  public  school  a  day 
and  may  have  no  child  to  attend ;  thousands  may  go  to 
county  buildings,  State  buildings,  etc.  When  a  man's 
property  is  taxed  there  is  no  contract,  direct  or  indirect, 
made  or  implied,  that  he  is  personally  to  be  considered 
in  its  use.'" 

Thus  an  old,  old  controversy  has  come  down  even  to 
the  present  day.  So  wrapped  in  traditions  have  the 
schools  been  from  the  beginning  that  it  has  been  very 
hard  for  some  classes  of  people  to  grasp  the  force  of  such 
arguments  as  the  above.  The  habit  of  looking  upon 
education  as  a  strictly  personal  affair,  vested  interests, 
religious  prejudice,  all  these  and  more  have  stood,  and 
still  stand,  to  a  considerable  extent,  in  the  way  of  a  com- 
plete readjustment  of  ideas  in  strict  harmony  with  the 
real  needs  of  the  situation. 

4.    Need  of  More  Money  for  Schools 

"We  ought  to  spend  more  public  money  on  schools, 
because  the  present  expenditures  do  not  produce  all 
the  good  results  which  were  expected  and  may  reason- 
ably be  aimed  at,"  wrote  President  Eliot  a  few  years 
ago.^  In  this  connection  he  shows  wherein  the  schools 
have  failed  and  also  what  new  things  they  have  done 
and  are  undertaking  to  do.  Whoever  gives  a  little 
thought  to  the  matter  will  readily  see  that  if  the  schools 
are  to  be  brought  to  that  state  of  efficiency  which  the 
importance  of  their  service  to  society  requires,  and  at 

^  Eliot,  Charles  W.,  "More  Money  for  the  Public  Schools,"  p.  25. 


140  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

the  same  time  provide  for  the  ever-increasing  demands 
in  response  to  our  industrial  needs,  the  people  must  put 
much  more  money  into  the  enterprise  than  they  are 
now  doing.  And  not  only  must  there  be  more  money, 
but  we  must  also  find  a  means  for  the  more  equitable 
distribution  of  it. 

When  the  nation  is  believed  to  be  in  need  of  battle- 
ships, coast  defences,  or  waterway  improvements  there 
are  abundant  resources  from  the  revenues  which  the 
people  pay  in  the  form  of  indirect  taxes.  There  are  al- 
ways comments  of  an  unfavorable  character  by  a  few 
who  realize  the  true  source  of  the  funds  which  are  to 
pay  for  these  improvements;  but  the  vast  majority  of 
the  people  go  on  paying  without  thinking  much  about 
it.  When  a  direct  tax  is  to  be  levied,  however,  the 
matter  is  different.  Each  individual  is  called  upon 
directly  to  pay  over  a  certain  sum  for  a  specific  pur- 
pose. At  once  all  the  old  Anglo-Saxon  prejudice  is 
aroused  and  we  hear  people  talking  about  the  enormous 
taxes  they  have  to  pay,  and  especially  for  schools. 
If  they  would  trouble  to  look  into  the  matter  they  would 
find  that  there  is  no  other  possible  way  by  which  good 
schooling  can  be  had  at  so  low  a  rate,  based  on  per- 
capita  cost. 

On  this  last  point  Mr.  C.  M.  Woodward  has  compiled 
some  interesting  comparative  statistics.^  He  finds  that 
in  Saint  Louis  the  schools  cost  $.95  for  every  dollar 
paid  for  police  service.  In  Boston  the  ratio  is  $1.73  to 
$1.00;  in  New  York,  $1.93  to  $1.00;  in  San  Francisco, 
$1.48  to  $1.00;  in  Detroit,  $1.60  to  $1.00,  etc.  Many 
other  similar  comparisons  might  easily  be  made.  It 
seems  evident  from  this  that,  when  considered  value  for 

^The  following  figures  are  quoted  from  President  Eliot's  book  pre- 
viously referred  to. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION     141 

value,  our  schools  are  not  so  expensive  as  the  tax  haters 
sometimes  try  to  make  them  appear. 

5.    Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  Direct 
Taxation 

From  the  point  of  view  of  general  public  satisfaction, 
it  would  be  a  good  thing  if  the  entire  cost  of  education 
might  somehow  be  carried  through  indirect  taxation. 
But  there  is  -another  very  important  consideration  which 
needs  to  be  kept  before  us  here.  The  call  upon  the  peo- 
ple of  a  community  for  direct  participation  in  the  cost 
of  education  has  a  very  wholesome  educational  influence 
upon  pubUc  sentiment  in  regard  to  schools  and  their 
real  value.  What  people  pay  for  directly  they  are  in- 
clined to  examine  into  pretty  carefully  in  order  to  under- 
stand what  the  money  is  going  for.  Without  such  a 
direct  proprietary  interest  in  our  schools,  pubhc  senti- 
ment would  be  likely  to  lag  far  behind  the  present 
stage  of  enlightenment,  inadequate  as  that  sometimes 
seems  to  be.  Such  a  situation,  in  case  of  even  a  slight 
reactionary  movement,  might  prove  disastrous  to  edu- 
cational progress. 

What  we  probably  should  have  is  a  combination  of 
the  two  forms  of  taxation,  which  would  transfer  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  burden  to  indirect  sources  of 
revenue  but  still  leave  each  community  to  do  its  best 
up  to  a  certain  limit.  This  we  shall  discuss  more  fully 
a  little  further  on. 

6.    Inadequacy  and  Inequalities  in  Support  of  Schools 

The  large  increase  in  the  cost  of  education,  together 
with  the  changes  now  in  progress  and  everywhere  de- 
sired in  the  shape  of  industrial  training  in  our  schools, 
brings  us  face  to  face  with  the  problem  of  maintenance 


142  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

on  an  entirely  new  basis  as  far  as  aggregate  cost  is  con- 
cerned. This  problem  is  accentuated  with  the  increas- 
ing diificulty  experienced  in  many  localities  in  securing 
teachers  enough  who  are  even  reasonably  well  prepared 
for  the  work  which  the  people  are  demanding  to  have 
done  in  the  schools. 

At  present  the  taxing  units  for  the  support  of  schools 
are  district,  township,  county,  city  or  town,  State,  and 
nation.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  cost  of  the  ele- 
mentary and  high  schools  is  borne  by  districts.  In  a 
number  of  States  provision  is  made  for  township  or 
county  support  of  high  schools.  Several  of  the  States 
also  subsidize  the  high  schools  and  elementary  schools. 
The  States,  chiefly,  support  normal  schools  (except  those 
of  cities),  universities,  and  special  institutions  for  the 
training  of  defectives  and  delinquents.  The  nation, 
through  land  grants,  has  aided  in  the  support  of  common 
schools  and  universities,  and  is  now  contributing  direct 
appropriations  to  the  support  of  education  in  agriculture 
and  military  training  under  State  administration. 

The  inequalities  and  inadequacy  of  support  in  many 
instances  are  too  well  known  to  need  any  very  full  ac- 
count here.  Professor  E.  P.  Cubberley,  in  his  work  on 
"School  Funds  and  Their  Apportionment,"  ^  has  done  a 
great  service  of  enlightenment  to  school  people  and  the 
country  at  large.  Not  only  has  he  pointed  out  the  in- 
equalities existing  in  various  typical  States  and  the 
futility  of  seeking  to  depend  upon  permanent  endowment 
funds,  but  he  has  also  made  valuable  suggestions  as  to 
ways  and  means  of  adjusting  the  inequalities  and  increas- 
ing the  educational  resources  on  a  more  equitable  basis. 

^Cubberley,  E.  P.,  "School  Funds  and  Their  Apportionment,"  pp. 
255,  .1906,  "Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  Contributions  to 
Education." 


MAINTENANCE  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION     143 

In  order  to  get  before  us  in  brief  form  the  wide  range 
of  difference  in  ability  of  different  sections  in  a  State, 
and  also  of  different  States  and  sections  of  the  United 
States,  the  following  table  has  been  compiled  from  sta- 


AssESSED  Valuation  of  Real  Property  per  Capita,  Average, 
Highest  County  and  Lowest  County  for  Each  State;  Ex- 
penditure Per  Capita  of  Average  Attendance  at  School, 
AND  Average  Length  of  School  Year  (Approx.)  in  Months. 


State 


Massachusetts. . 
Connecticut .... 
New  Jersey 

Virginia 

South  Carolina.. 
Mississippi 

Iowa 

Nebraska 

Oregon 


•3.2- 


ol  3  O 


5<c/3 


$825.46 
562.75 

411-39 

171.04 
76.97 
84.65 

176.19 
104.28 

212.67 


m 


$1,538-62 
670.22 
461.09 

526.02 
160.42 
168.02 

261.61 
251.24 
285. IQ 


3  i-o  a 

m 


$443.48 
361 .00 
279.99 

75-32 
38.02 

51-13 

116.79 
3409 
110.92 


>  o.s 


$44.49 
3471 
51-03 

17.02 
8.26 
9-49 

33 -oi 
37-63 
38.51 


9-3 
9-2 
9-2 

6.4 
3-5 

7.2 

8.6 
7-6 
6.9 


•§.11 

^  Z  ti 

.0 


«.Ej 


68.0 

100. o 

23.2 

6.1 

14.6 

60.5 
60.9 
56.6 


tistics  of  the  census  for  1900  and  from  the  reports  of  the 
United  States  commissioner  of  education.  Making  al- 
lowance for  some  discrepancies  which  were  unavoidable, 
these  figures  still  serve  the  purpose  very  well.  In  the 
first  three  columns  may  be  seen  the  variations  in  any  one 
of  the  States  given.  This  is  assuming  that  in  each  case 
we  are  thinking  of  an  ad  valorem  tax  levy  for  the  sup- 
port of  public  schools. 

Reading  these  columns  down  instead  of  across,  and 
taking  them  in  connection  with  columns  four,  five,  and 
six,  we  get  a  comparison  by  States.    And  if  we  take 


/ 
^  144  J       ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 


e 


them  in  groups  of  three,  as  they  are  arranged,  we  get 
a  comparative  view  of  the  different  sections  of  the 
United  States. 

In  a  similar  manner  we  might  compare  the  districts 
of  a  given  group  of  townships  or  counties  in  any  one  or 
more  States  and  find  similar  differences  as  to  the  finan- 
cial ability  of  the  people  as  compared  with  the  number 
of  children  to  be  cared  for. 

It  seems  evident  enough  that  on  a  direct  ad  valorem 
tax  alone,  by  districts,  counties,  or  States,  it  is  quite 
impossible  to  get  even  an  approach  to  an  equitable  dis- 
tribution of  the  cost  of  this  chief  of  our  national  defences. 

7.    Important  P>rinciples  Involved 

Two  very  important  principles  are  here  involved: 
(i)  Where  an  enterprise  is  not  only  worthy  of  being 
successfully  promoted,  but  also  at  the  same  time  is  nec- 
essary to  our  social  well-being  and  to  the  perpetuation 
of  our  essential  institutions  as  a  nation,  adequate  means 
should  be  supplied,  to  the  extent  of  the  financial  ability 
of  society,  for  rendering  this  department  of  the  public 
service  thoroughly  efficient.  Surely  no  one  can  ques- 
tion for  a  moment  the  financial  ability  of  society  in  this 
instaijce.  (2)  If  public  education  as  a  common  charge 
upon  all  the  people  is  defensible  and  just,  then  ways 
should  be  found  for  a  much  more  equitable  distribution 
of  the  benefits  of  education  to  all  classes  and  sections 
alike.  Only  by  some  such  balancing-up  method  will  it 
be  possible  for  society  to  attain  the  ends  sought.  For 
ignorance  and  vice  in  one  part  of  the  social  body  is 
likely  to  endanger  the  vitality  of  the  entire  body. 

8.    Basis  for  State  Support 

What,  then,  may  be  done  further  than  has  already  been 
imdertaken,  in  order  to  bring  about  the  desired  improve- 


MAINTENANCE  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION      145 

merits  in  our  scheme  for  maintaining  public  education? 
Whatever  plan  we  may  undertake  to  put  in  operation, 
we  should  not  overlook  the  fact  that  local  initiative 
in  establishing  and  maintaining  schools  should  be  en- 
couraged rather  than  weakened  or  supplanted.  Just 
here  we  are  favored  by  the  present  situation  in  the  de- 
velopment of  our  educational  needs.  We  have  come  to 
the  point  where  there  is  a  strong  demand  for  vocational 
training.  Indeed,  we  may  say  that  one  of  the  chief 
concerns  as  regards  increased  revenues  is  the  desire  thus 
to  widen  the  scope  of  our  educational  system. 

The  differentiation  of  work  which  all  this  suggests 
furnishes  a  natural  "Une  of  cleavage"  as  between  what 
the  people  of  a  given  district  may  do  and  what  the  State 
or  nation  may  at  least  assist  in  doing.  Of  the  two  func- 
tions of  education — the  training  of  the  mind  and  the 
training  in  industrial  intelligence  and  skill — it  is  espe- 
cially desirable  that  the  former  should  be  kept  up  largely 
by  the  more  immediate  community.  On  the  relative 
importance  of  these  two  lines  of  training,  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  State,  Superintendent  Fred  M.  Campbell, 
of  Oakland,  wrote,  in  1888,  as  follows:^  "One  of  these 
notions  is  that  the  training  of  a  boy's  hands  to  a  par- 
ticular trade  is  of  equal  importance,  to  the  State,  with  the 
education  of  the  mind.  The  truth  of  the  matter  is  sim- 
ply this :  such  a  training  of  the  hands  is  a  good  and  useful 
thing,  especially  to  the  individual  concerned,  and  there 
are  a  number  of  pressing  necessities  which  will  drive 
men  up  to  this;  but  the  education  of  the  mind  is  an 
absolutely  indispensable  thing  for  the  well-being  of  the 
State,  and  yet  there  are  no  such  immediate  pressing 
urgencies  felt  by  the  individual  and  driving  him  up  to 
furnish  this  to  his  children.  Accordingly,  while  the  one 
can  be  left  to  the  individual,  the  other  must  be  secured, 
>  Quoted  from  Report  of  U.  S.  Commissioner,  1888-9,  ^  '•  618. 


146  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

beyond  all  peradventure,  by  the  State.  Mark  the  essen- 
tial difference:  The  necessity  of  getting  a  living  forces 
itself  upon  every  man  for  his  own  immediate  selfish  in- 
terest. The  necessity  of  educating  his  children  has  no 
such  visible  urgency  upon  the  ignorant  man — that  is, 
for  the  interest  of  others  rather  than  his  own  selfish 
interest — and  the  consequences,  even  to  them,  are  too 
remote  and  far-reaching  to  be  appreciable  by  his  dull 
mind.  No  doubt  the  State  would  be  better  off  for  hav- 
ing an  abundance  of  skilled  artisans,  but  intelligent  men 
it  must  have  or  it  is  on  the  broad  road  to  ruin." 

Allowing  for  the  change  in  educational  outlook  which 
has  come  about  in  the  twenty-five  years  that  have  elapsed 
since  the  above  writing,  there  is  still  an  important  prin- 
ciple therein  stated  which  holds  good.  And  it  is  the 
more  fundamental  need  which  he  points  out  that  should 
be  kept  constantly  alive  in  the  minds  of  all  the  people. 
At  first  thought  such  a  statement  seems  antagonistic  to 
the  sentiment  of  the  quotation.  But  if  we  consider  the 
State  as  the  lawgiver  in  the  case,  and  if  the  State  fixes 
the  laws  so  as  to  permit  no  evasion,  participation  in  the 
direct  maintenance  of  the  schools  for  training  to  intelli- 
gence is  about  the  only  force  that  will  ever  elevate  the 
masses  to  the  required  standards  of  intelligence.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  then,  we  may  leave  the  burden  of  vo- 
cational training  more  largely  to  the  State  and  nation, 
while  the  smaller  units  of  educational  control  should  be 
required  to  care  more  especially  for  the  mental  training 
of  the  children  and  youth. 


9.    A  Working  Scheme  of  Maintenance 

With  the  above  general  principles  in  mind  we  may 
outline  a  working  scheme  for  the  maintenance  of  a  bal- 
anced and  equitable  educational  system.    As  a  basis  we 


MAINTENANCE  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION      147 

shall  take  the  generally  recognized  units  of  control  and 
their  relation  to  the  various  classes  of  schools  which 
serve  them. 

/.  Elementary  schools  and  high  schools,  i.  The  ele- 
mentary schools  are  by  their  very  nature,  and  by  reason 
of  the  ages  to  which  they  offer  instruction,  more  nearly 
local  in  their  ministration  than  any  other  class. 

2.  The  high  schools  serve  fewer  as  to  numbers,  propor- 
tionately, and  should  therefore  extend  their  service  over 
a  wider  territory.  This  principle  is  readily  recognized 
in  large  cities  where  a  number  of  elementary  schools  are 
tributary  to  a  central  high  school.  Not  until  this  same 
principle  is  recognized  generally  in  smaller  cities  and 
towns  and  in  rural  communities  shall  we  be  able  to 
maintain,  economically,  free  high  schools  for  all.  To  se- 
cure such  a  result  a  larger  unit,  the  county,  might  better 
have  control  of  the  districting  for  high-school  purposes. 
A  long  step  toward  equalization  of  cost  would  be  taken 
if  the  county  could  also  be  made  the  local  taxing  unit 
for  the  support  of  high  schools. 

//.  State  institutions.  These  include  normal  schools, 
universities,  and  institutions  for  the  training  of  the 
defective  and  delinquent  classes.  The  first  two  of 
these  offer  a  service  that  is  at  least  as  much  national 
as  State.  They  are,  no  doubt,  best  managed  and  con- 
trolled by  the  States  in  which  they  are  located;  but  the 
national  character  of  their  service  should  be  recognized 
more  fully  when  it  comes  to  maintenance. 

Taking  the  above  grouping  as  a  basis,  how  shall  we 
divide  the  cost  of  maintaining  them? 

I.  The  cost  of  maintaining  the  elementary  schools 
should  rest  largely  with  local  communities.  To  the  local 
funds  there  would,  of  course,  be  added  any  distributable 
funds  arising  from  permanent  endowment  funds  held  by 


148  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

the  State  or  appropriated,  by  special  enactment,  for 
such  purpose. 

In  case  of  weak  districts  unable  to  maintain  efficient 
schools  without  aid,  according  to  minimum  standards 
which  each  State  should  determine,  the  State  should 
add  such  funds  as  shall  enable  these  financially  weak 
communities  to  bring  their  schools  up  to  the  efficiency 
standard,  at  least  so  far  as  this  may  be  determined  by 
the  length  of  the  school  term. 

Wherever  it  is  found  advisable,  after  careful  experi- 
menting by  the  State,  to  establish  vocational  courses  in 
elementary  schools  the  State  should  at  least  provide  for 
the  proper  supervision  of  this  work. 

2.  The  high  schools  should  be  maintained  chiefly  by 
the  enlarged  districts  mentioned  above  or  out  of  the 
general  county  high-school  fund  if  such  a  plan  of  ad- 
ministration might  become  feasible.  For  the  teaching 
of  vocational  subjects  and  the  equipment  for  the  same, 
however,  including,  where  necessary,  some  professional 
training  for  those  who  go  out  from  high  schools  to  teach, 
the  State  should  provide  a  liberal  subsidy. 

As  in  the  case  of  elementary  schools,  should  occasion 
arise  under  any  system  of  administration  in  use,  the 
State  should  aid  high  schools  unable  to  do  so  from  local 
sources  to  maintain  minimum  standards  of  efficiency  as 
determined  by  the  State.  This  should  be  usually  on 
the  condition  that  the  enrollment  and  the  community 
ministered  to  by  a  given  school  are  large  enough  to  jus- 
tify its  maintenance  as  a  fully  organized  high  school. 

3.  In  the  case  of  normal  schools  and  all  schools  and 
departments  of  State  universities  for  training  in  profes- 
sions which  relate  directly  to  general  public  service  not 
confined  within  State  boundaries,  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment should  give  liberal  subsidies.     In  this  way  the 


MAINTENANCE  OF   PUBLIC   EDUCATION      149 

States  would  be  relieved  of  part  of  the  burden  now 
borne  by  them,  and  would  thus  be  enabled  to  turn 
more  of  the  State  revenues  to  the  purposes  above  des- 
ignated in  the  interests  of  elementary  and  high-school 
education. 

10.     Application  in  Case  of  Federal  Aid 

It  would  follow  from  our  previous  reasoning,  also,  that 
federal  aid  should  be  extended  to  States  which  are  finan- 
cially unable  to  maintain  efficient  educational  facilities 
in  any  of  the  essential  departments  of  such  public  ser- 
vice as  determined  by  the  recognized  standards  of  a 
majority  of  States.  For  instance,  federal  aid  might  very 
properly  relieve  the  States  of  the  South  included  in  the 
black  belt  largely  of  the  burden  of  supporting  schools 
for  the  negroes.  This  should  not  mean,  however,  that 
the  administration  of  these  schools  should  be  taken  out 
of  the  hands  of  the  local  State  authorities. 

In  both  State  and  federal  aid  all  grants  of  subsidies 
should  be  administered  by  the  districts  and  States,  re- 
spectively, to  which  such  grants  are  made.  But  the 
granting  of  them  should  be  conditioned  in  each  case  on 
(i)  a  requirement  that  districts  or  institutions  thus 
subsidized  first  show  a  determination  to  do  their  utmost 
toward  maintaining  their  work  on  a  basis  of  efficiency, 
and  (2)  on  the  character  of  the  distributing  and  check- 
ing system  provided  by  each  State  as  to  its  probable 
effectiveness  in  insuring  the  best  possible  use  of  the 
funds  provided  and  for  the  purposes  originally  intended. 

II.     Increasing  Demands  and  Fixed  Rates  of  Levy 

Whatever  may  be  the  sources  of  funds  for  educational 
purposes,  the  increase  from  year  to  year  should  keep 
pace  (i)  with  the  increase  in  attendance;    (2)  with  the 


150  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

increased  cost  of  eqmpment  due  to  the  development  of 
vocational  work;  (3)  with  the  increase  in  the  cost  of 
instruction  and  other  service  needed  due  to  the  higher 
standards  of  preparation  required  and  to  the  increased 
cost  of  living.  Professor  Moore,  in  his  analysis  of  finan- 
cial conditions  in  New  York  City,  points  out  that  the 
increase  in  appropriations  for  educational  purposes  has 
not  kept  up  with  the  increase  in  attendance.  Such  a 
condition  would  show  a  distinct  retrogression  unless 
there  could  be  shown  a  previous  condition  of  wasteful- 
ness the  correction  of  which  would  account  for  the  seem- 
ing shortage  in  appropriations.  The  New  York  situa- 
tion seemingly  does  not  offer  any  such  explanation. 

Fixed  rates  of  valuation,  together  with  a  constitutional 
or  legislative  provision  setting  a  maximum  limit  beyond 
which  a  community  may  not  go  in  levying  funds  for  the 
support  of  schools,  are  sure  to  bring  some  school  sys- 
tems to  grief.  In  several  of  the  States  such  conditions 
exist  to-day.  Because  of  the  inequalities  of  valuation 
due  to  physical  or  economic  conditions,  sections  of  States, 
and  even  entire  States,  may  be  placed  in  the  position  of 
being  unable  to  do  what  the  people,  under  the  changed 
conditions,  would  willingly  .undertake,  because  they  have 
no  legal  authority  to  carry  forward  the  work  and  pay 
the  price. 

Ways  should  be  found  by  which  such  a  sane  popular 
demand  might  always  be  realized.  As  far  as  any  exces- 
sive taxing  is  concerned,  the  matter  would  regulate  itself. 
People  would  not  impoverish  themselves  or  go  beyond 
the  limit  of  a  sound  credit  basis  in  their  efforts  to  secure 
for  their  children  the  best  possible  school  facilities. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION      151 

12.    Justice  and  Wisdom  in  Federal  Aid 

There  are  both  justice  and  wisdom  in  the  plan  for  a 
larger  distribution  of  funds  for  educational  purposes  by 
the  Federal  Government,  This  course  is  wise  because  it 
will  relieve  somewhat  the  demands  upon  the  people  for 
a  larger  direct  local  tax  for  the  support  of  various  indus- 
trial lines  of  education.  It  is  just  because  much  of  our 
increased  wealth  is  due  directly  to  the  increased  intelli- 
gence resulting  from  the  training  of  our  schools  and  col- 
leges. The  tax  on  corporations  might,  much  of  it,  be 
very  justly  turned  back  to  the  States  whence  it  comes. 
Education,  scientific  research,  should  have  a  due  pro- 
portion of  the  results  of  increased  production  due  to  the 
application  of  scientific  principles  and  general  intelli- 
gence which  the  schools  have  made  possible. 

,         13.    Problem  of  Compensation  of  Teachers 

The  most  important  problem  and  at  the  same  time  the 
one  most  difficult  to  solve  in  financing  our  educational 
system  is  the  problem  of  the  compensation  of  teachers. 
This  involves  not  only  salaries  but  also  the  pension 
problem.  The  advance  in  the  cost  of  living  during  the 
last  decade  has  been  very  trying  to  the  resources  of  those 
living  on  salaries.  A  stipend  representing  a  fixed  an- 
nual compensation  is  not  readily  adjustable  to  such 
changes  in  the  prices  of  the  commodities  essential  to 
life.  Always  the  advance  in  salary  is  sure  to  lag  a  Uttle 
behind  the  increased  demands  upon  the  salary-replen- 
ished purse.  On  no  class,  perhaps,  does  this  fall  more 
heavily  than  upon  the  teachers  of  our  public  schools 
and  higher  institutions  of  learning.  One  chief  reason 
for  this  is  that  they  are  practically  compelled  to  be  idle 
for  about  one  fourth  of  the  year,  if,  indeed,  they  are  not 


152  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

put  to  some  special  extra  expense,  in  order  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  their  profession,  by  attending  conven- 
tions or  studying  at  some  institution  of  higher  learning 
through  its  summer  session. 

14.     Reasons  for  Present  Inadequacy 

The  increased  demands  upon  the  teacher  due  to  the 
advance  made  in  the  character  of  the  work,  both  of  in- 
struction and  supervision,  in  our  schools  is  no  small 
item  for  the  teacher  to  meet.  Other  professions  do  not 
require  such  a  constant  strain  and  added  expenses  from 
year  to  year.  The  fact  that  the  summer  sessions  above 
referred  to  are  supported  largely  by  teachers  is  an  un- 
failing evidence  that  this  is  true. 

An  investigation  in  regard  to  teachers'  salaries  and 
cost  of  living,  provided  for  by  the  National  Education 
Association  at  its  191 1  meeting,  was  reported  in  January, 
1913.  This  report  seems  to  indicate  that  in  a  great 
many  cases  the  salaries  of  teachers  have  not  advanced 
at  a  pace  equal  to  the  advance  in  cost  of  the  staple  com- 
modities of  life,  including  rents,  food,  and  clothing.  If 
this  conclusion  is  correct,  it  would  leave  the  purchasing 
power  of  salaries  now  paid  in  most  instances  consider- 
ably below  that  of  a  decade  ago,  while  the  amount  of 
training  demanded  of  teachers  by  society  has  materially 
advanced  in  the  same  period  of  time. 

This  condition  not  only  works  a  hardship  upon  a  class 
of  hard-working  people,  but  it  also  threatens  at  least  a 
temporary  breakdown  in  the  standards  of  education  now 
attained,  inadequate  as  these  are  when  compared  with 
our  social  and  industrial  needs.  Such  a  state  of  things 
comes  about  through  the  necessity  of  filling  too  large  a 
percentage  of  teaching  positions  with  immature  and  in- 
adequately trained  teachers.     The  whole  thing  shows 


MAINTENANCE  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION      153 

up  badly  for  the  financial  management  of  our  educational 
system.  Not  a  little  of  this  maladministration  of  school 
finances  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  limitations  placed  by 
legislation  enacted  to  fit  conditions  that  existed  forty 
or  fifty  years  ago. 

15.     The  Question  of  Arbitrary  Adjustments  of 
Salaries 

The  whole  matter  of  compensation  of  teachers  is  still 
in  a  chaotic  condition.  Indiana  has  undertaken  to  rem- 
edy the  situation  by  legislation,  fixing  minimum  rates 
based  on  the  teacher's  quahfications.  The  fixing  of  sal- 
ary schedules  by  cities  is  an  arbitrary  process  employed 
in  an  effort  to  hold  teachers  in  service  and  to  be  able 
to  attract  a  sufficient  number  of  those  well  qualified  to 
fill  the  ranks  where  depletion  in  the  ranks  and  growth 
of  the  schools  have  together  caused  vacancies. 

The  elements  of  the  problem  of  salaries  for  teachers 
as  it  now  presents  itself  are:  (i)  Are  the  present  sched- 
ules sufficient  to  command  the  services  of  enough  men 
and  women  qualified  for  the  work  to  supply  the  demand? 
(2)  If  the  present  scale  is  too  low,  to  what  extent  is  this 
brought  about  by  the  competition  of  those  who  are  merely 
transients  in  the  field  or  whose  qualifications  are  more 
or  less  below  the  minimum  standards  of  efficiency?  Is 
it  desirable  to  undertake,  by  legislation,  under  existing 
conditions,  to  establish  arbitrary  standards,  thus  ignor- 
ing the  economic  law  of  supply  and  demand? 

Seemingly  all  our  experience  and  all  our  knowledge  of 
the  laws  controlling  the  development  of  children  and 
youth  emphasize  the  need,  first  of  all,  of  maintaining 
the  highest  practicable  state  of  efficiency  in  our  teaching 
service.  To  do  this  we  must  set  the  minimum  of  prep- 
aration of  teachers  as  high  as  the  possibility  of  main- 


154  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

taining  such  a  standard  will  permit.  Next,  we  must  seek 
to  eliminate,  as  speedily  and  eflfectively  as  possible,  that 
element  of  inefficiency  which  arises  chiefly  from  lack  of 
experience. 

If  once  these  two  things  can  be  cared  for  in  such  a 
secure  fashion  that  society  will  not  fall  back  to  lower 
standards  rather  than  pay  the  price  of  competent  men 
and  women,  will  not  the  salaries  of  teachers,  along  with 
those  of  other  occupations,  adjust  themselves  fairly  well 
by  the  free  operation  of  the  law  of  the  market? 

In  attempting  to  answer  this  general  interrogation, 
there  are  two  modifying  conditions  which  call  for  some 
consideration  at  this  point.  The  first  of  these  is  to  be 
found  in  society's  estimate  of  the  relatively  fundamental 
necessity  of  schools  and  education.  Wherever  we  find  a 
social  group  of  sufficient  size  to  maintain  a  school  and 
which  is  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  idea  that  efficient 
schools  are  actually  essential  to  both  local  and  national 
well-being,  we  usually  find  a  high  grade  of  teachers' 
qualifications  demanded,  and  at  correspondingly  good 
salaries.  On  the  other  hand,  if  salaries  are  low,  and 
with  no  arbitrary  restriction  on  the  community's  fi- 
nances, the  people's  ideals  as  to  the  importance  and 
necessity  of  efficient  schools  will  very  generally  be  found 
to  be  low  if  not  absolutely  vague  and  unformed.  It 
will  thus  readily  appear  that  local  ideals  and  standards 
may  become  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  market  so 
far  as  teaching  service  is  concerned. 

Again,  the  market  conditions  are  bound  to  be  affected 
by  the  fact  that  so  large  a  proportion  of  women  enter 
upon  the  work  of  teaching,  presumably  because  of  the 
relatively  small  number  of  occupations  open  to  women. 
This  naturally  tends  to  swell  the  supply  abnormally  as 
compared  with  the  demand. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION      155 

On  both  these  conditions  the  establishment  of  a  higher 
minimum  qualification  standard  would  take  effect.  In 
the  case  of  low  ideals  in  a  given  community,  the  extent 
to  which  the  correspondingly  low  standards  of  teaching 
might  prevail  would  be  reduced  by  the  setting  up  of 
this  arbitrary  limitation  as  to  who  might  be  permitted 
to  teach.  With  reference  to  the  influx  of  women  be- 
yond normal,  the  higher  standards  would  tend  to  shut 
out  many  by  making  it  more  diflScult  for  them  to  qualify. 

Thus  we  find  that  with  a  limitation  calculated  to  secure 
reasonable  efficiency  placed  upon  teachers'  qualifications, 
the  law  of  supply  and  demand  would  tend  to  regulate 
the  compensation  of  teachers,  except  that  there  would 
probably  still  continue  to  be  at  least  a  slight  difference 
in  favor  of  the  men,  owing  to  the  relative  difficulty  in 
securing  a  sufficient  number  for  positions  usually  assigned 
to  male  teachers. 

This  is  assuming  that  society,  in  recognizing  the  im- 
portance of  maintaining  schools  on  a  basis  of  efficiency, 
would  remove  all  arbitrary  restrictions  on  the  rights  of 
the  people  of  any  school  district  to  levy  a  sufficient 
amount  to  enable  the  board  to  pay  the  prices  necessary 
to  obtain  the  services  of  efficient  teachers. 

i6.    Effect  of  Salary  Conditioiis  on  Shortage  of 
Teachers 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  present  marked  shortage 
of  qualified  teachers  is  due  largely  to  the  inadequacy 
of  current  salaries  as  an  inducement  for  young  men  and 
young  women  to  enter  the  teaching  field.  The  stand- 
ards for  financing  the  schools  having  once  become  fixed, 
it  is  difficult  indeed  to  induce  public  opinion  to  show  a 
willingness  to  meet  the  necessary  increase  in  the  cost  of 
maintaining  true  standards  of  teaching. 


156  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

17.    Teachers*  Pensions  as  a  Remedy 

Two  special  methods  have  been  proposed  as  an  off- 
set to  this  condition  with  regard  to  the  pay  of  teachers: 
The  first,  that  of  pensions,  is  very  commonly  practised. 
According  to  statistics  furnished  by  William  H.  Hood,^ 
of  the  Bureau  of  Education,  there  are  now  twenty-six 
States  and  several  of  the  larger  cities  acting  indepen- 
dently that  have  teachers'  pension  laws.  These  laws  are 
classified  imder  three  heads:  non-contributory,  i.  e.,  by 
the  State  without  any  payment  out  of  the  teacher's 
salary;  compulsory-contributory,  or  laws  requiring 
teachers  to  pay  a  certain  sum  or  percentage  of  their 
salaries  annually;  voluntary-contributory,  or  payment 
required  only  of  those  desiring  to  take  advantage  of 
such  a  plan.  Most  of  the  State  laws  are  of  the  com- 
pulsory-contributory type. 

In  connection  with  these  laws  there  is  generally  lack- 
ing any  plan  by  which  funds  paid  in  may  be  returned  to 
a  teacher,  who,  for  any  cause,  drops  out  of  a  school  sys- 
tem. Such  a  condition  would  seem  to  work  injury  in  two 
ways :  First  of  all  it  is  not  just  to  the  one  who  has  paid 
and  may  not  participate  in  any  benefit.  In  the  second 
place,  it  is  apt  to  create  a  feeling  that,  because  of  the 
establishment  of  such  a  relationship,  a  teacher  may  not 
be  removed  from  the  system.  In  this  case  it  might  eas- 
ily result  in  harm  to  the  school  through  the  retention  of 
teachers  no  longer  useful  as  teachers  but  not  yet  en- 
titled to  an  annuity.  The  element  of  injustice  might 
be  removed  if  provision  were  made  for  payment  to  a 
teacher  transferring  to  another  field  a  certain  moiety  of 
the  amount  paid  in  under  the  contract  from  which  he 
is  withdrawing. 

'  See  "  Report  on  Teachers'  Salaries  and  Cost  of  Living,"  N.  E.  A.,  1913. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION      157 

There  is  a  weak  point  in  this  whole  theory  of  pensions. 
The  idea  of  depending  on  some  source  other  than  one's 
own  industry  and  fjngahty  is  apt  to  prove  enervating  to 
many,  although  certainly  not  to  all,  of  a  teaching  corps 
looking  forward  to  such  retirement  on  pay  as  an  assured 
fact.  It  woi^ld  seem  better  to  make  the  pay  so  as  to 
leave  a  margin,  over  and  above  the  total  cost  of  living, 
sufficient  to  enable  the  individual  to  provide  for  his  or 
her  own  future.  In  the  few  exceptional  cases,  due  to 
some  misfortune  resulting  from  causes  beyond  indi- 
vidual control,  special  pensions  should  be  provided  as 
occasion  arises.  Otherwise  each  one  should  care  for 
himself.  But  public  sentiment  advances  slowly  and 
there  seems  to  be  no  immediate  prospect  for  the  realiza- 
tion of  any  such  ideal  situation. 

i8.    Doctor  Pritchett  on  Teachers'  Pensions 

Meanwhile  a  situation  exists  which  certainly  needs  to 
be  met,  and  met  effectively.  Doctor  Henry  S.  Pritchett 
in  his  seventh  annual  report^  for  the  Carnegie  Founda- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching  thus  states  the 
problem: 

One  of  the  great  weaknesses  of  our  public-school  systenni  to-day 
lies  in  the  fact  that  only  a  small  number  of  men  can  be  induced 
to  undertake  permanent  careers  in  it.  Before  we  can  hope  for 
the  best  results  in  education,  we  must  make  a  career  for  an 
ambitious  man  possible  in  the  public  schools.  To  do  this,  dig- 
nity and  security  must  be  given  to  the  teacher's  calling,  and 
probably  no  one  step  could  be  taken  which  will  be  more  influ- 
ential in  inducing  able  men  and  women  to  adopt  the  profession 
of  the  teacher  in  the  public  schools  than  to  attach  to  that  voca- 
tion the  security  which  a  pension  brings. 

'  Seventh  Annual  Report,  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement 
of  Teaching,  191 2,  p.  70. 


158  ADMINISTRATION  OF   EDUCATION 

Doctor  Pritchett  then  goes  on  to  ask  the  four  ques- 
tions which,  at  the  least  consideration,  the  legislator 
called  upon  to  enact  laws  in  regard  to  the  pensioning  of 
teachers  should  wish  to  have  answered.  The  first  three 
of  these  questions  with  proposed  answers  are:* 

1.  Upon  what  grounds  are  pensions  for  public-school  teachers 
justified? 

Pensions  are  justified  upon  practically  two  grounds:  first, 
those  of  a  larger  social  justice;  secondly,  as  a  necessary  condi- 
tion to  an  efiicient  public-school  system. 

The  first  of  these  reasons  applies  in  marked  measure  to  pen- 
sions like  that  of  the  teacher.  Society,  as  at  present  organized, 
desires  to  get  the  best  service  it  can  out  of  the  various  vocations 
and  callings  into  which  men  are  naturally  distributed.  In  some 
of  these  callings  great  prizes  are  to  be  won,  and  these  serve  as 
incentives  for  high  performance.  In  other  callings,  like  that  of 
the  teacher,  there  are  no  large  prizes  in  the  way  of  pecuniary 
reward  (it  would  be  a  wise  thing  in  society  to  create  such). 
Society  desires  to  obtain  of  the  teacher  a  service  quite  out  of 
proportion  to  the  pay  which  he  receives.  Intelligence,  devotion, 
high  character — all  are  necessary,  and  the  State  seeks  to  obtain 
them  at  an  average  salary  of  $500  a  year.  It  is  clear  that,  if 
the  State  is  to  receive  such  service,  some  protection  for  old  age 
and  disability  must  be  had,  if  the  best  men  and  women  are  to  be 
induced  to  enter  upon  such  a  calling  as  a  life  work. 

Secondly,  from  the  standpoint  of  efficiency  in  organization, 
whether  a  governmental  one  or  a  business  one,  there  must  be 
some  means  for  retiring,  decently  and  justly,  worn-out  servants. 
In  the  past  we  have  in  most  cases  turned  out  men  and  women 
no  longer  able  to  teach,  but  the  conscience  of  our  time  does  not 
permit  such  action.  Out-worn  teachers  remain  to  the  direct 
injury  of  the  pupils  themselves.  As  a  matter  of  efficiency,  some 
humane  method  of  retirement  for  pubUc-schooI  teachers  is 
necessary. 

These  two  reasons  for  the  establishment  of  pensions  for  the 
teachers  in  State  schools  are  sound  and  unanswerable. 

2.  Assuming  that  pensions  ought  to  be  paid,  who  ought  to 
pay  them? 

» Op.  cit.,  pp.  71-4. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION      159 

Three  plans  for  securing  protection  against  disability  and  the 
weakness  of  old  age  are  proposed:  a  pension  system  borne 
wholly  by  the  employer,  a  pension  system  borne  wholly  by  the 
employee,  a  pension  system  conducted  jointly  by  both  employer 
and  employee  and  supported  by  their  joint  contributions. 

While  there  are  some  variations  of  opinion  among  those  who 
have  studied  the  question,  the  overwhelming  weight  of  opinion 
is  in  favor  of  the  third  plan. 

A  system  of  pensions  depending  on  the  contributions  of  employ- 
ees alone  amounts  practically  to  a  compulsory  system  of  saving. 
In  order  that  the  benefits  may  be  large  enough  to  form  a  basis 
for  retirement,  the  contribution  must  be  so  large  as  to  be  prac- 
tically prohibitory. 

The  third  plan  seems  to  me  justified  not  only  on  the  ground 
of  equity  but  upon  the  ground  of  self-interest,  whether  the  em- 
ployer be  a  corporation  or  a  government.  All  salaries  such  as 
teachers'  are  relatively  low,  and,  while  the  question  of  a  just 
salary  must  not  be  confused  with  the  equity  involved  in  a  relief 
plan,  it  nevertheless  remains  true  that  the  general  equities  of 
service  demand  that  a  part  of  the  pension  of  a  servant  be  borne 
by  the  employer.  A  State  still  owes  to  the  faithful  teacher 
something  after  it  has  paid  his  salary.  He  has  been  required  to 
regulate  his  life  in  large  measure  for  the  common  interest.  In 
addition,  the  employer,  whether  a  corporation  or  a  State,  secures 
a  higher  efficiency  by  a  well-ordered  pension  system.  Finally, 
only  by  such  joint  action  can  be  secured  the  right  co-operation 
between  employer  and  employee.  On  all  three  grounds — the 
ground  of  general  equity,  of  increased  eflSciency,  of  a  better 
social  co-operation — it  is  desirable  that  a  system  of  pensions  rest 
upon  the  joint  contribution  of  the  employer  and  the  employee. 

I  assume  that  on  the  whole  it  is  fair  for  the  teacher  to  bear 
half  the  cost  of  the  annuity  and  the  State  the  other  half. 

3.  What  form  of  pension  system  would  it  be  fair  to  adopt, 
having  regard  both  to  the  individual  teacher  and  to  the  State? 

The  form  of  pension  system  at  once  just  and  feasible  would 
involve  the  consideration  of  many  details,  but  at  least  these 
general  principles  may  be  assumed  as  proven: 

(a)  The  pension  obligation  should  be  compulsory  upon  every 
teacher  who  enters  the  service. 

(b)  The  amount  of  the  contribution  should  be  determined  by 
thorough  actuarial  investigation,  but  each  teacher  shall  form  a 


IGO  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

unit,  and  the  annuity  which  he  is  to  receive  shall  be  based  upon 
his  own  payment  plus  that  granted  by  the  State.  Such  an  ar- 
rangement is  just  and  fair  and  is  capable  of  actuarial  computa- 
tion. Every  individual,  whether  he  survives,  resigns,  or  dies, 
thus  furnishes  the  basis  for  the  action  taken. 

(c)  Contributions  levied  upon  teachers  who  resign  or  are  dis- 
missed must  be  returned  with  a  moderate  interest — say  three 
per  cent — and  similar  returns  must  be  made  to  the  widows  or 
heirs  of  those  who  die. 

(d)  A  central  administration  for  the  pensions  of  all  public- 
school  teachers  should  be  provided,  constituted  of  a  small  com- 
mission serving  without  salary,  with  a  paid  executive  who  should 
at  the  same  time  be  a  competent  actuary. 

"What  will  such  a  pension  system  cost  the  individual 
teacher  and  what  will  it  cost  the  State?"  is  the  fourth 
question  suggested.  This  is  a  question  not  readily 
answered  from  our  present  knowledge  of  the  subject. 
After  assuming  a  typical  condition  the  writer  proceeds 
to  an  estimate  of  the  relative  cost  to  the  individual  and 
to  the  State.  He  assumes  that  the  pension  is  to  provide 
solely  for  old  age,  fixing  the  limit  at  sixty.  He  reasons 
that  this  will  "  take  care  of  the  main  load  which  affects 
both  the  question  of  justice  and  the  question  of  effi- 
ciency." 

19.    A  Second  Partial  Remedy 

The  second  method  which  has  been  proposed  as  an 
offset  to  the  inadequacy  of  salaries,  or,  to  put  it  in  a  dif- 
ferent form,  as  an  inducement  for  those  lacking  means 
to  prepare  for  the  work  of  teaching,  is  that  the  State 
should  pay  prospective  teachers  just  as  miUtary  and  na- 
val cadets  are  paid  for  attending  the  respective  insti- 
tutions set  up  by  the  Federal  Government  for  training 
in  the  arts  of  war.^    If  properly  hedged  about  by  con- 

•  See  Bagley,  W.  C,  Editorial,  School  and  Home  Education,  Nov.,  191 1, 
pp.  92-5. 


MAINTENANCE   OF   PUBLIC   EDUCATION      161 

ditions  on  which  individuals  are  selected  for  such  work, 
this  plan  should  be  readily  feasible  and  seemingly  just 
and  fair  to  all. 

20.    The  Problem  of  School  Accountiiig 

Finally,  there  remains  the  question  of  accounting  as 
related  to  the  financing  of  schools  and  all  educational 
institutions.  According  to  studies  made  by  H.  E.  Bard,^ 
the  matter  of  efficient  expert  accounting  seems  to  be 
very  generally  neglected  by  city  school  districts.  "In 
general,"  he  says,  "it  is  probably  true  that  in  no  other 
field  of  legislation  affecting  the  city  school  district  are  the 
measures  enacted  less  complete  and  less  constructive." 
If  such  a  condition  exists  in  the  cities,  what  can  be  said 
of  the  rural  and  village  districts,  representing  a  majority 
of  the  people,  where  no  adequate  provision  is  made  for 
any  accounting  other  than  that  necessary  to  furnish  a 
general  balance-sheet  for  generally  inexpert  auditing? 
Those  who  are  familiar  with  the  methods  of  handling 
educational  funds  as  generally  practised  must  reaHze 
how  great  and  how  significant  a  fact  Doctor  Bard  has 
pointed  out. 

In  the  first  place,  in  many  of  the  States  township  offi- 
cials hold  permanent  funds,  the  proceeds  of  school  lands, 
which  with  or  without  any  adequate  system  of  checking 
are  loaned  out  in  small  sums.  How  much  more  effec- 
tive such  funds  might  become  if  consolidated  for  a  county 
and  put  into  the  hands  of  trusted  experts  whose  business 
it  should  be  to  exploit  these  funds  on  a  safe  basis  solely 
for  the  benefit  of  the  schools  and  not  for  any  private 
gain  or  business  advantage  of  individuals  or  corporations. 
The  compensations  required  for  such  service  would  be  a 

^  Bard,  "The  City  School  District;  Statutory  Provisions  for  Organi::a- 
tion  and  Fiscal  Affairs,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  1909. 


162  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

mere  bagatelle  as  compared  with  the  loss  which  annu- 
ally accrues  under  the  present  methods  of  management 
of  these  funds.  Here,  again,  we  see  what  a  gain  might 
result  in  the  fiscal  affairs  of  education  if  we  had  a  cen- 
tralized coimty  board  in  control  of  rural  education. 

21.     The  Saint  Louis  Plan  of  Accounting 

As  regards  accounting  by  city  boards,  the  following, 
quoted  from  the  charter  of  the  board  of  education  of  the 
city  of  Saint  Louis,  ^  may  be  taken  as  a  type  of  the  kind 
of  provision  that  should  be  in  operation  in  every  city 
school  system: 

The  board  shall  appoint  a  competent  person  as  auditor,  who 
shall  serve  for  a  term  of  four  years  and  give  bond  in  the  sum  of 
ten  thousand  dollars.  His  salary  shall  not  be  reduced  during 
the  term  of  his  office,  and  he  may  be  removed  for  cause  by  a 
two-thirds  vote  of  the  entire  board.  He  shall  be  the  general 
accountant  of  the  board,  and  preserve  in  his  office  all  accounts, 
vouchers,  and  contracts  pertaining  to  school  affairs.  It  shall  be 
his  duty  to  examine  and  audit  aU  accounts  and  demands  against 
the  board  and  to  certify  their  correctness  to  the  secretary  and 
treasurer  of  the  board.  He  shall  adopt  a  proper  system  of  double- 
entry  bookkeeping.  He  shall  require  settlement  of  accounts  to 
be  verified  by  affidavit  whenever  he  thinks  proper,  and  shall 
keep  the  accounts  of  the  school  in  a  systematic  and  orderly 
manner.  No  claim  or  demand  shall  be  audited  unless  it  is  au- 
thorized by  law  and  the  rules  of  the  board  and  be  in  proper  and 
fully  itemized  form,  and  unless  the  amount  required  for  the  pay- 
ment of  the  sum  shall  have  heretofore  been  appropriated  by  the 
board. 

22.    Need  of  Publicity  in  Accounting 

Some  such  provision  as  the  above,  if  put  into  opera- 
tion in  all  our  cities  and,  through  a  county  unit  organi- 

*  Bard,  H.  E.,  op.  cU.,  p.  107. 


MAINTENANCE  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION      1G3 

zation,  in  all  our  rural  schools,  would  undoubtedly  result 
in  great  saving.  But  it  should  not  stop  here.  There 
should  be  a  careful  study  of  the  relation  between  expen- 
diture and  achievement  by  the  schools.  Every  notable 
increase  for  additions  or  innovations  should  account  for 
itself.  There  should  be  not  only  the  general  fiscal  bal- 
ance-sheet, open  to  all  the  people,  but  also  a  balance- 
sheet  showing  gain  or  loss  in  results.  This,  too,  should 
be  for  all  the  people  to  read. 

While  local  districts  may  be  empowered,  through  their 
boards,  to  levy,  collect,  and  disburse  funds,  it  should 
not  be  forgotten  that  all  this  is  a  State-wide  rather  than 
a  local  interest.  The  State  should  see  to  it  that  a  proper 
accounting  and  auditing  system  is  provided,  perhaps 
more  properly  acting  independently  of  any  board. 


CHAPTER  IX 

PREPARATION    OF    TEACHERS 

The  administration  of  a  system  of  public  education  in 
the  process  of  instructing  children  and  youth  calls  for  a 
special  equipment  on  the  part  of  those  who  are  to  in- 
struct or  supervise  the  work  of  instruction.  In  this  re- 
spect education  is  like  any  other  organized  undertaking 
which  involves  in  its  successful  execution  both  the  skill 
of  the  craftsman  and  the  knowledge  and  ability  of  the 
professional  man  in  the  application  of  principles  as  an 
essential  to  the  accomplishment  of  the  ends  in  view. 
The  unsettled  question  in  all  lands  as  to  the  kind  and 
amount  of  training  required  for  a  teacher  or  supervisor 
of  a  certain  grade  centres  in  the  adjustment  of  the  pro- 
portion of  skill  and  of  professional  ability  which  each 
should  possess. 

I.    Skill  and  Professional  Knowledge  Required 

To  very  many  people,  even  among  those  who  teach, 
the  chief,  if  not  the  sole,  consideration  is  that  of  skill. 
To  as  many  others,  and  especially  among  the  professional 
classes,  the  only  essential  requirement  is  professional 
knowledge.  Given  a  thorough  grounding  in  this,  and  the 
art  will  take  care  of  itself.  To  the  educational  expert 
called  to  the  responsible  task  of  nominating  teachers  to 
serve  under  him  who  can  maintain  the  standards  of  effi- 
ciency demanded  by  a  watchful  and  jealous  public,  the 

164 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  165 

problem  is  more  acute.  He  realizes  fully  the  value  of 
professional  standards  in  the  training  of  teachers,  espe- 
cially as  it  concerns  the  forward  movement  of  his  edu- 
cational system.  But  the  immediate  need  he  knows 
must  require  a  liberal  amount  of  good  craftsmanship. 
He  readily  appreciates  the  fact  that,  other  things  equal, 
after  much  blundering  and  some  downright  failures,  the 
broader  professional  training  will  gain  the  ascendancy  if 
it  once  survives  complete  shipwreck.  But  he  is  also 
keenly  alive  to  the  fact  that  the  patrons  of  his  school 
will  resent  having  their  children  made  the  objects  of 
crude  experimentation.  Furthermore,  he  readily  com- 
prehends the  danger,  from  such  a  cause,  of  reaction 
against  the  frontier  lines  of  every  progressive  movement 
he  has  been  able  to  set  going. 

"  Give  us  teachers  who  can  manage  the  school,"  say  the 
laymen,  "and  we  care  not  so  very  much  how  extensive 
or  how  limited  their  preparation  may  be."  "We  need 
men  and  women  of  broad  education  as  our  teachers," 
say  the  experts,  "but  they  must  know  how  to  use  their 
knowledge  and  to  exercise  tact  according  to  the  particu- 
lar work  they  are  called  to  do."  Yet,  still  the  typical 
academic  college  professor  tilts  his  head  or  looks  wise. 
"Our  fathers  and  grandfathers  before  us  taught,  and 
we  ourselves  teach,"  he  says,  "because  we  know  our 
subjects  and  are  in  love  with  learning  for  its  own  sake." 
And  so,  while  the  doctors  disagree,  our  schools  continue 
to  be  taught  largely  by  novices  in  the  art  of  teaching. 
In  many  cases  even  our  supervisors  are  without  that 
wisdom  concerning  the  work  they  are  called  to  direct 
which  they  must  win,  if  at  all,  through  experimenting. 


166  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

2.    Public  Policy  to  Train  Teachers  at  Public 
Expense 

All  of  the  States  in  the  Union  are  now  committed  to 
the  policy  and  practice  of  training  teachers  at  public 
expense.  The  people  generally,  and  the  educational  pub- 
lic in  particular,  readily  recognize  the  right  and  the  ne- 
cessity of  such  training  in  order  successfully  to  maintain 
an  efficient  system  of  public  education.  We  have  our 
State  normal  schools  and  teachers'  colleges,  our  univer- 
sity departments  and  schools  of  education,  and,  in  many 
instances,  educational  courses  in  high  schools,  to  say 
nothing  of  our  teachers'  institutes  and  the  numerous 
voluntary  associations  of  teachers  for  mutual  betterment 
of  their  work.  Still  the  situation  is  far  from  satisfactory. 
It  is  not  even  moderately  so,  except  in  a  few  States  where 
greater  progress  has  been  made  toward  the  solution  of 
this  difficult  problem. 

3.    Relative  Importance  of  Skill  and  Knowledge 

It  is  probably  true,  as  suggested  a  short  time  ago  by 
Elmer  E.  Brown,  then  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education,^  that  in  the  earlier  stages  of  education  skill  is 
relatively  of  greater  importance,  while  in  the  later  years 
of  schooling,  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is  the 
major  consideration.  May  we  not  also  affirm  as  a  prin- 
ciple that  all  grades  of  teaching,  no  matter  how  great 
the  teacher's  skill,  will  be  materially  strengthened  by  the 
fullest  practicable  degree  of  mastery  of  one's  subject 
and  of  the  theory  of  its  value  and  function  as  a  factor 
in  education? 

The  converse  to  this  last  principle  should  also  be  true — 

^Education,  vol.  29,  pp.  1-6,  "Distinctive  Functions  of  University, 
College  and  Normal  School  in  the  Preparation  of  Teachers." 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  167 

that  no  matter  how  well  any  one  who  teaches  may  know 
the  subject  or  the  materials  of  education,  he  will  still  be 
a  better  teacher  if  he  has  somehow  acquired  reasonable 
skill  or  facility  in  the  art  of  teaching.  The  majority  of 
our  young  teachers  begin  their  work  in  rural  or  village 
schools  where  they  receive  very  little  or  no  assistance 
in  the  form  of  intelligent  supervision.  To  these,  experi- 
ence may  or  may  not  bring  any  real  skill  in  the  art  of 
teaching.  To  acquire  such  training  they  need  expert 
guidance  from  some  one  who  carefully  observes  their 
work  from  day  to  day.  The  case  is  practically  the 
same,  in  varying  degrees,  with  regard  to  instruction  in 
our  colleges.  The  lower  classes  of  undergraduates,  more 
in  need  of  the  skilled  teacher's  guidance  than  perhaps 
at  any  other  time  in  their  school  experience,  are  turned 
over  to  the  young,  inexperienced  instructors  to  practise 
on  until  they,  too,  have  acquired  some  skill  as  crafts- 
men in  their  field.  True  economy  in  keeping  up  the 
supply  of  teachers  may  very  consistently  demand  that 
all  teachers  have  some  training  under  experts  who  can 
give  their  time  to  a  study  of  the  student-teacher's  work, 
oiBfering  specific  suggestions  and  criticisms  as  they  may 
be  needed. 

4.    Training  of  Teachers  in  High  Schools 

With  these  principles  before  us  we  may  now  proceed 
to  discuss  the  kinds  of  training  which  the  dififerent  types 
of  schools  for  the  preparation  of  teachers  may  best  offer 
and  under  what  conditions.  It  is  a  fact  readily  estab- 
lished by  statistics  that  a  considerable  proportion  of 
our  teachers  of  elementary  schools  receive  in  the  high 
school  all  the  preparation  they  ever  get  for  teaching.  In 
most  cases  this  is  training  only  in  knowledge  without 
even  the  theory  of  teaching  included.    The  high  school 


168  .\DMINISTRATIOX  OF  EDUCATION 

is  the  home  school.  Many  of  those  desiring  to  teach 
are  from  families  in  moderate  circumstances  if  not  rank- 
ing among  the  poorer  classes.  They  cannot  afford  the 
cost  of  a  year  or  more  away  from  home  at  a  normal  school. 
If  they  teach,  therefore,  they  must  make  use  of  the 
home  school  at  least  for  their  initial  preparation.  And 
usually  this  is  the  part  of  their  preparation  which  deter- 
mines their  success  or  failure  once  for  all. 

As  a  rule,  we  get  good  teachers  from  among  such  can- 
didates, and  society  cannot  afford,  therefore,  to  make 
teaching  inaccessible  to  them.  Furthermore,  it  would 
be  impracticable,  for  some  time  to  come,  at  least,  for  our 
normal  schools  and  colleges  to  prepare  enough  teachers 
to  meet  the  demand.  It  seems  inevitable  that  the  high 
schools  should  have  an  important  place  in  this  work. 
Indeed,  there  is  ample  ground  for  believing  that  one  of 
the  surest  and  most  essential  means  to  progress  in  the 
work  of  our  elementarj^  schools  is  to  be  found  in  the 
establishment  of  many  more  and  better  high  schools 
free  to  all  classes. 

What,  then,  should  be  the  kind  of  training  offered  by 
our  high  schools  as  prejjaration  for  teaching?  Evidently 
they  should  prepare  only  for  elementary  work.  This 
should  include  a  study  of  the  most  important  pedagog- 
ical principles  involved  in  the  teaching  of  elementary 
subjects  and  in  managing  a  schoolroom.  Some  well- 
directed  observational  work  should  be  given  and,  if  pos- 
sible, at  least  a  few  opportunities  at  actual  teaching  with 
or  without  the  presence  of  the  regular  teacher. 

Provision  should  be  made  by  the  State  for  aiding  such 
high  schools  in  a  county  as  are  strong  enough  to  offer 
teachers'  courses  and  every  possible  facility  provided 
for  making  this  training  as  effective  as  pjossible.  Special 
emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  the  needs  and  condi- 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  169 

tions  in  rural  schools,  since  most  of  those  going  out  to 
teach  from  our  high  schools  are  likely  to  begin  their 
work  in  the  country  districts. 

5.    Normal  Schools  Typical  Training-Schools 

The  typical  American  institution  for  the  preparation 
of  elementary  teachers  is  the  normal  school.  This  is  an 
institution  to  be  found  in  nearly  all  our  States,  varying 
in  number  for  each  State  from  one  to  eighteen.  The 
States  making  the  largest  provision  for  normal-school 
training  are:  New  York,  18;  Pennsylvania,  1 7 ;  Wisconsin, 
15;  Massachusetts,  11;  and  Maine,  10.  A  total  of  196 
public  normal  schools  were  reported  for  all  the  States  in 
1910.  These  schools  employed,  in  all,  3,185  teachers  for 
normal  students  and  i  ,629  for  other  departments,  making 
a  total  instructional  force  of  4,814  persons.  There  were 
enrolled  in  these  public  normal  schools  79,546  students 
in  normal  departments.  In  all  departments  not  includ- 
ing model  schools  there  were  enrolled  113,011  students. 
The  number  of  normal  graduates  for  the  year  was  13,725. 
This  scarcely  more  than  equals  the  annual  increase^  in 
the  number  of  teachers  employed,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
very  large  number  dropping  out  of  the  ranks  each  year. 

The  standard  of  work  in  these  institutions  varies 
widely;  but  the  general  scope  of  the  work  seems  to 
be  about  the  same  in  all.  The  elementary  subjects 
are  reviewed  as  a  basis  for  pedagogical  consideration. 
The  academic  courses  of  high-school  grade  are  usually 
taught.  More  recently  the  manual  arts  and  agriculture 
have  been  added.  In  many  of  the  normal  schools  busi- 
ness courses  are  offered.  Along  professional  lines  ele- 
mentary courses  are  given  in  psychology,  the  principles 

'  The  average  annual  increase  for  the  three  years  ending  in  1909  was 
10,738. 


170  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

of  education,  history  of  education,  school  management, 
and  methods  of  treatment  of  the  different  subjects  to 
be  taught. 

In  many  cases  the  admission  requirements  permit 
pupils  to  enter  directly  from  the  completion  of  the  eight 
grades  of  elementary  school  work.  These  may  be  grad- 
uated at  the  end  of  a  four-year  course.  Others  enter 
with  from  one  to  three  years  of  high-school  work,  which 
is  usually  below  standard,  and  may  graduate  in  three 
years,  or  in  some  cases  two.  A  regular  two-year  pro- 
fessional course  is  offered  for  graduates  of  four-year  high 
schools.  The  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education, 
in  his  report  for  1910,  mentions  as  evidence  of  advance- 
ment in  the  normal  schools  the  following  points:  (i) 
They  require  for  admission  the  completion  of  a  four-year 
high-school  course  or  its  equivalent;  (2)  they  offer  four- 
year  degree  courses  which  are  cultural  as  well  as  pro- 
fessional, parallel  to  regular  college  courses;  (3)  they 
provide  for  specialization  in  manual  arts,  domestic  econ- 
omy, agriculture,  and  the  natural  sciences. 

Until  very  recently  no  attention  has  been  paid  by 
normal  schools  to  the  peculiar  needs  of  rural  schools. 
Even  now  this  is  done  only  in  a  few  instances.  The 
typical  courses  considered  are  such  as  are  usually  offered 
in  the  grades  of  a  city  school,  and  the  training-schools, 
which  are  standard  features  in  the  organization  of  normal 
schools,  are  also  planned  almost  solely  in  the  interests 
of  the  graded  system  of  towns  and  cities.  It  seems 
quite  evident  that  somewhere  in  the  educational  system 
special  attention  should  be  given  to  the  training  of  an 
adequate  number  of  teachers  who  could  enter  into  the 
spirit  of  country  life  in  such  a  way  as  to  stimulate  in- 
terest in  and  love  for  the  rural  industries  and  for  rural 
home  life  of  an  improved  type.     Certainly  it  will  be 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS       171 

readily  granted  that  for  such  vision  and  leadership  as  is 
here  demanded  something  more  than  a  mere  high-school 
training  is  required. 

Perhaps  the  most  notable  feature  about  our  normal 
schools  is  to  be  found  in  the  atmosphere  which  they 
create  for  the  student  body,  resulting  usually  in  the  in- 
culcation of  a  fine  professional  enthusiasm.  In  this  re- 
spect no  other  institution  sending  out  teachers  has  yet 
been  able  to  equal  them.  The  singleness  of  purpose 
which  pervades  all  the  work,  the  serious  outlook  which 
a  definite  choice  of  such  a  calling  gives,  conspire  to  en- 
gender such  a  strong  professional  spirit. 

6.     Need   and   Propriety  of  Federal   Aid  for  Normal 

Schools 

At  present  these  institutions  are  maintained  chiefly 
at  the  expense  of  the  States.  The  situation  seems  to 
point  to  the  necessity  as  well  as  to  the  right  of  a  liberal 
contribution  toward  their  support  from  the  Federal 
Government.  The  service  of  teachers  trained  in  a  given 
State  is  not  to  be  held  within  the  boundaries  of  a  single 
commonwealth.  Very  quickly  the  laws  of  supply  and 
demand  operate,  and  the  graduates  of  any  given  normal 
school  are  scattered  among  many  States.  They  are 
drawn  upon  also  for  the  island  service  in  Porto  Rico 
and  the  Philippines.  Indeed,  these  schools  are  more  na- 
tional than  State  when  considered  in  this  hght. 

7.    The  City  Training-School 

The  city  training-school  is  a  localized  type  of  normal 
school  which  contributes  almost  solely  to  the  supply  of 
teachers  for  the  city  system  of  which  it  is  a  part.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  its  organization  and  operation  are  very 
similar  to  those  of  the  State  schools.     In  order  to  insure 


172  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

a  sufficient  number  of  properly  qualified  teachers  for  the 
elementary  grades,  many  of  our  larger  cities  are  compelled 
to  maintain  either  a  training-school  or  tfeachers'  college. 
To  one  looking  at  the  situation  as  a  whole  it  seems  un- 
fortunate that  such  a  condition  should  exist.  In  most 
cases  where  cities  train  their  own  teachers,  the  vast  ma- 
jority of  those  taking  the  training  are  from  the  city 
school  system,  for  which  they  are  trained.  This,  taken 
in  connection  with  local  city  certificating  of  teachers, 
puts  a  special  and  exclusive  emphasis  on  whatever  is 
local  and  provincial  to  the  exclusion  of  those  elements 
which  should  come  rather  freely  from  all  sources  from 
which  teachers  are  supplied,  in  order  to  keep  the  vitality 
of  the  system  at  its  best.  It  may  be  desirable  to  have 
in  each  large  city  a  normal  school  for  the  training  of 
those  of  the  city  who  may  wish  to  teach.  But  such  an 
institution  should  be  administered  independently  of  the 
city  as  a  State  school.  Its  students  should  be  drawn 
from  all  sources  and  its  graduates  encouraged  to  go  out 
of  the  home  city  to  teach. 

8.     Colleges  and  Universities  as  Training-Schools 
for  Teachers 

Later  in  the  evolution  of  our  educational  policies  there 
has  developed  a  new  aspect  to  the  problem  of  training 
teachers  for  our  schools.  Before  normal  schools  or  high 
schools  existed  the  colleges  were  sending  out  a  consider- 
able number  of  men  as  teachers.  At  first  these  men 
taught  in  the  Latin  schools  and  in  academies ;  but  when 
public  high  schools  began  to  be  organized,  they  also  came 
into  service  in  these  schools.  Among  the  pioneer  settle- 
ments of  the  great  West  they  often  became  the  first 
teachers  of  the  "rate"  schools,  while  they  and  their 
fellow  college  men  in  other  professions  led  in  laying  the 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  173 

foundations  for  a  system  of  free  public  schools.  As  men 
of  learning,  endowed  with  something  of  that  altruistic 
spirit  which  was  a  dominant  force  in  every  early  college, 
they  simply  took  up  the  task  of  transmitting  the 
"Promethean  flame."  They  had  not  been  trained  in 
the  art  of  teaching  further  than  that  they  had  caught 
the  spirit  of  the  teacher  from  close  and  frequent  contact 
with  those  at  whose  feet  they  sat  as  willing  and  zealous 
disciples. 

After  the  Civil  War,  high  schools,  normal  schools,  and 
State  universities  developed  with  about  equal  rapidity 
throughout  the  Central  West.  Traditionally,  the  teach- 
ing of  the  higher  grades  in  high  schools  was  passed  over 
chiefly  to  the  men  of  college  training.  As  supervisory 
positions  increased  in  number,  the  men  trained  in  normal 
schools,  because  of  their  superior  training  in  educational 
history  and  theory,  readily  won  the  preference  of  educa- 
tional boards  for  these  positions. 

Meantime  pressure  was  brought  for  a  training  that 
should  give  equal  opportunity  for  such  commanding  po- 
sitions to  those  men  who  still  preferred  to  get  their 
preparation  for  teaching  in  colleges  and  universities. 
The  higher  institutions  of  the  States  responded  by  the 
organization  of  departments  for  the  teaching  of  "didac- 
tics," or  educational  theory  and  history.  Departments 
of  psychology  generally  evolved  from  this  effort,  with 
their  first  courses  directed  in  the  interests  of  those  pre- 
paring to  teach. 

9.    The  University  School  of  Education 

Next  came  the  idea  of  the  school  of  education  or 
teachers'  college,  always  with  the  sole  idea  of  giving 
opportunity  to  those  who  sought  a  college  preparation 
for  teaching,  to  get  with  this  training  suflBicient  profes- 


174  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

sional  knowledge  to  fit  them  for  supervisory  and  high 
school  positions.  The  chief  opposition  to  these  schools 
of  education,  strangely  enough,  arose  from  within  the 
institutions  themselves.  For  centuries  the  holder  of  an 
A.B.  degree  had  been  considered  amply  qualified  to 
teach;  why  should  he  now  be  expected  to  study  about 
teaching?  Why  all  this  talk  about  practice  teaching  and 
a  science  of  education?  Was  the  high  ideal  of  learning 
to  be  degraded  to  the  mere  process  of  fitting  men  and 
women  for  occupations? 

Slowly,  very  slowly,  the  school  of  education  is  finding 
its  place  in  the  work  of  our  great  State  universities.  As 
the  work  of  organizing  the  principles  and  history  of 
education  proceeds,  college  men  are  more  and  more  con- 
vinced of  the  importance  of  it  as  a  field  for  research. 
Still  more  slowly,  however,  proceeds  the  recognition  of 
the  need  of  the  real  educational  laboratory — the  prac- 
tice and  model  schools  for  training,  observation,  and  ex- 
perimentation. The  situation  is  not  unlike  that  of  agri- 
culture among  farmers.  For  years  they  laughed  at  the 
idea  of  "book  fa,rming."  Had  not  men,  their  ancestors, 
succeeded  for  many  hundreds  of  years  in  the  cultivation 
of  the  soil  and  in  the  production  of  crops  and  stock? 
Now,  at  last,  after  a  long  struggle,  most  farmers  have 
become  convinced  that  there  is  a  very  important  gain 
resulting  from  the  application  of  scientific  principles  in 
agriculture.  So  it  must  be  with  education.  Most  of 
the  public-school  teachers,  and  especially  those  charged 
with  administrative  functions,  are  already  convinced. 
The  "doubting  Thomases"  are  among  the  ranks  of  the 
professors  in  our  liberal-arts  colleges,  who  seem  vaguely 
to  fear  some  loss  or  change  in  the  significance  of  the  bac- 
calaureate degree  in  arts,  as  though  a  degree  is,  or  ever 
can  be,  a  fixed  and  immutable  measure  for  all  the  learn- 


PREPARATION   OF  TEACHERS  175 

ing  of  all  ages  up  to  a  definite  stage  in  the  process  of  edu- 
cation. Others  who  oppose  the  idea  are  to  be  found  in 
certain  normal  schools  or  teachers'  colleges.  Their  fear 
is  of  the  loss  of  prestige  because  of  something  higher 
than  they. 

There  are  great  unsolved  problems  in  the  field  of  edu- 
cation which  it  will  take  years  of  patient  and  careful 
investigation  and  experimentation  to  solve.  It  is  prob- 
ably true  that  some  of  this  can  be  as  well  or  better  done 
by  normal  schools.  Yet  the  normal  schools  must  ever 
use  most  of  their  resources  in  preparing  the  vast  army  of 
teachers  for  our  elementary  schools. 

The  men  and  women  who  seek  to  prepare  at  a  univer- 
sity for  the  work  of  teaching,  if  we  are  to  place  any 
stress  at  all  on  their  professional  training,  must  be  able 
to  get  this  in  connection  with  the  institution  where  they 
study.  Besides,  in  order  to  carry  forward  the  work  of 
investigation,  a  considerable  number  must  be  especially 
trained  for  this  phase  of  work.  There  are  no  other  in- 
stitutions so  well  qualified  to  give  this  training  as  are 
the  universities. 

Then,  again,  the  broad  development  which  our  ele- 
mentary and  high  school  education  is  taking  on  renders 
it  essential  that  he  who  trains  to  supervise  and  develop 
this  work  should,  somewhere  in  his  training,  get  some- 
thing of  that  broader  outlook  which  only  a  university 
is  prepared  to  give.  But  if  universities  are  to  equal 
the  normal  schools  in  the  inculcation,  in  the  teachers 
they  train,  of  that  fine  professional  spirit  of  which  men- 
tion has  been  made,  some  organic  structure  must  be 
provided,  perhaps  more  akin  to  Teachers  College  at 
Columbia  University. 


176  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

10.    What  Should  Be  the  Relation  of  the  Three 
Types  of  Training? 

At  the  present  stage  in  the  progress  of  this  particular 
phase  of  our  educational  evolution  there  is  much  un- 
certainty and  considerable  contention  as  to  just  what 
should  be  the  relationship  of  the  three  types  of  institu- 
tions— high  schools,  normal  schools,  and  universities — 
to  this  work  of  preparing  teachers  and  also  of  each  to  the 
others  in  the  whole  field  of  educational  endeavor.  Such 
a  state  of  things  is  not  a  matter  to  wonder  at  nor  to 
cause  any  special  concern  or  heat  of  debate.  It  is  nat- 
urally to  be  expected  as  an  episode  in  the  growth  of  a 
great,  new  institution  which  is  daily  entering  into  the 
pioneer  regions  of  human  experience  along  educational 
lines. 

What  we  need  to  do  is  to  keep  in  view  the  one  single 
aim :  an  efiicient  system  of  education  for  a  great  democ- 
racy which  doubtless  carries  with  its  ultimate  success  or 
failure  the  destinies  of  the  millions  who,  as  posterity, 
shall  inherit  the  permanent  results  of  our  acts.  Such 
an  aim  should  readily  overshadow  and  outweigh  any  and 
all  private  or  personal  interests.  True,  it  is  very  essen- 
tial to  the  finding  of  the  final  truth  that  each  one  who 
believes  he  has  found  some  portion  of  that  truth  should 
insistently  maintain  his  point  of  view  until  others  may 
also  see  and  weigh  his  theory.  But  all  this  can  best 
be  done  in  a  spirit  of  harmony  and  good-fellowship.  The 
real  dangers  to  be  feared  as  causes  which  may  retard  or 
prevent  the  truth  are  narrow  jealousy  or  a  mean  selfish- 
ness which  will  even  resort  to  questionable  means  in 
order  to  secure  their  ends. 

The  whole  scheme  for  the  training  of  our  teachers  needs 
careful  revision  and  especially  unification  or  co-ordina- 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  177 

tion  in  the  functioning  of  its  different  parts.  It  has  been 
said  of  the  normal  schools,  for  instance,  that  they  are 
out  of  the  general  currents  of  educational  movement  and 
growth.  If  this  is  so  the  connections  should  be  read- 
justed. The  normal  school  really  belongs  to  a  part 
of  the  completed  scheme  for  the  university  work  of  a 
State. 

II.    Methods  of  Co-ordinating  the  University  and 
Normal  School 

There  are  two  ways  in  general  by  which  this  co-ordi- 
nating and  unifying  process  might  be  brought  about  and 
the  highest  end  of  this  department  of  our  system  of  public 
education  much  more  readily  attained.  Probably  the 
individual  and  ununified  development  of  these  separate 
factors  in  a  common  process  has  gone  about  as  far  as 
it  can  consistently  with  the  welfare  of  society  both  in 
matters  of  economy  and  for  general  effectiveness.  The 
two  methods  of  adjustment  are  these :  First,  let  the  edu- 
cators controlling  and  directing  the  administrative  de- 
velopment of  these  three  types  of  institutions  get  to- 
gether in  frequent  and  serious  conference,  having  laid 
aside  all  minor  or  ulterior  aims,  to  consider  just  what  the 
larger  permanent  State  and  national  welfare  demands 
and  to  devise  ways  and  means  of  bringing  it  about.  Let 
them  consider  wherein  they  may  co-operate  so  as  to 
avoid  waste,  or  conflict,  or  duplication.  For  all  these 
mighty  factors  are  needed,  each  at  its  best,  to  meet  this 
great  social  demand;  and  they  are  all  by  nature  readily 
adapted  to  being  dovetailed  into  unison. 

If  for  any  reason  these  educators  are  not  strong  enough 
or  clear  enough  of  vision  to  do  this — if,  in  other  words, 
there  exists  a  condition  demanding  arbitration — then 
each  State  for  itself  should  estabUsh  a  commission,  some- 


178  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

thing  like  that  which  has  been  provided  in  Scotland,* 
whose  function  it  should  be  to  bring  about  the  adjust- 
ments necessary  for  complete  co-operation  in  accomplish- 
ing this  great  service,  second  to  none,  of  providing  ade- 
quately trained  teachers  for  all  grades  of  our  schools 
and  for  their  supervision. 

Not  only  is  such  an  adjustment  needed  in  individual 
States  but  also  for  the  nation  as  a  whole.  There  are 
matters  of  vital  importance  to  the  economy  and  efl&ciency 
of  the  administration  of  education  which  wait  upon 
some  such  adjustments  among  the  States.  Such  a  case 
would  be  the  standardizing  of  requirements  for  gradua- 
tion from  professional  courses  in  normal  schools  and 
universities,  so  as  to  make  it  possible  to  have  nation- 
wide recognition  of  certain  diplomas  from  these  institu- 
tions as  a  basis  for  certification.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
States,  so  in  this  larger  sense  either  of  the  two  methods 
mentioned  above  might  be  used.  But  whether  in  the 
case  of  State  or  nation,  the  plan  of  mutual  agreement 
through  conference,  if  only  those  most  concerned  can 
come  together  in  peace,  will  always  be  found  most  ef- 
fective and  satisfactory.  Under  the  plan  of  State  con- 
trol through  one  board,  as  suggested  in  chap.  VII,  such 
a  plan  of  conference  and  agreement  would  send  up  to 
the  board  a  unanimous  recommendation,  the  approval 
of  which  would  be  a  foregone  conclusion. 

12.    Training  of  Teachers  in  Service 

There  is  another  phase  of  the  training  of  teachers,  but 
one  not  distinctly  a  feature  of  the  work  of  society  in  es- 
tablishing the  schools.  This  is  the  training  in  service 
which  teachers  get,  partly  through  voluntary  associa- 

^  See  Snedden,  David,  "A  New  Scheme  for  the  Training  of  Teachers 
in  Scotland,"  Educational  Review,  39  :  433-54. 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  179 

tions,  partiy  through  work  organized  and  directed  by 
the  superintendents  of  schools — State,  county,  and  city — 
and  partly  through  organized  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
State  through  legislative  provisions.  The  latter  is  the 
one  to  be  discussed  briefly  here.  The  first  and  second 
really  belong  to  the  discussion  of  the  administration  of 
instruction,  which  is  still  to  follow. 

This  organized  phase  of  the  work  comes  chiefly  under 
the  head  of  teachers'  institutes.  Forty-three  of  the 
States  make  some  legal  provision  for  institutes,  and  in 
the  five  remaining  States,  Connecticut,  Maine,  Massa- 
chusetts, Rhode  Island,  and  Tennessee,  institutes  are 
held  voluntarily.  These  gatherings  may  be  yearly  or 
oftener.  They  mostly  continue  for  one  week,  although 
in  a  number  of  instances  they  are  in  session  two  and 
sometimes  even  four  weeks  in  succession.  In  most  States 
teachers  who  attend  an  institute  during  the  term  of 
their  regular  employment  are  allowed  to  do  so  on  pay 
the  same  as  for  teaching.  Minnesota  seems  to  be  the 
only  exception  to  this  practice.  In  some  States,  as  In- 
diana and  Ohio,  teachers  receive  regular  pay  for  atten- 
dance even  when  the  institute  is  held  in  vacation.  In 
twelve  States  institutes  are  supported  wholly  by  State 
appropriations;  in  seven  others  wholly  by  county  appro- 
priations. In  nine  States  fees  are  the  sole  means  of 
support,  while  in  the  other  twenty  States  there  are  va- 
rious combinations  of  either  two  or  all  of  these  three 
methods. 

The  management  of  institutes,  especially  those  legally 
established,  is  either  by  the  State  directly  or  by  coun- 
ties, or  by  co-operation  of  the  two.  In  the  earlier  days 
of  institutes  they  were  conducted  more  generally  for 
regular  academic  and  professional  instruction.  As  high 
schools  and  normal  schools  have  multiplied,  such  instruc- 


180  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

tion  has  become  less  needed,  and  as  a  result  the  term 
has  shortened  and  the  general  plan  of  the  institute  has 
changed.  Now  it  may  be  said  that  the  chief  aim  every- 
where is  stimulation  and  inspiration  of  teachers  to  higher 
ideals  of  teaching  and  to  a  finer  appreciation  of  the  dig- 
nity and  importance  of  the  teacher's  work. 

The  usual  method  is  to  employ  one  or  more  special 
lecturers  of  marked  ability  in  expounding  educational 
ideals  and  principles.  Until  recently  the  general  prac- 
tice has  been  to  have  all  grades  and  classes  of  teachers 
meet  in  one  group  for  the  lectures.  More  recently,  how- 
ever, is  seen  a  marked  tendency  to  differentiate  the  work, 
as  in  the  case  of  New  York,  where  there  are  rural,  graded, 
and  high-school  sections.  Some  such  plan  of  organiza- 
tion, at  least  for  part  of  the  work  of  each  day,  has  a 
strong  tendency  to  increase  the  interest  and  effectiveness 
of  the  work. 

Somewhat  differentiated  from  the  county  or  district 
institute  is  the  summer  normal  school  provided  for  in 
some  States,  as  in  Louisiana,  Minnesota,  South  Dakota, 
and  Texas.  These  are  for  a  longer  period  and  are  pro- 
vided especially  to  enable  teachers  to  meet  specific  re- 
quirements in  the  way  of  professional  training.  In  some 
instances  institute  work  has  degenerated  into  a  kind  of 
cheap  entertainment  type.  But  in  the  main  these  edu- 
cational gatherings  have  played  and  still  are  playing 
an  important  part  in  the  general  educational  uplift. 
There  is  need,  however,  of  some  more  definite  standards 
for  measuring  their  achievement,  for  determining  relative 
values  in  the  different  methods  of  handling  them  as  an 
educational  means. 

In  only  a  few  of  the  States  as  yet  is  any  effective  pro- 
vision made  for  the  licensing  of  those  who  are  to  be  per- 
mitted to  lecture  or  instruct  in  institutes.     Extreme  care 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS       181 

in  this,  as  in  the  selection  of  teachers  always,  is  the  es- 
sential thing.  The  best  method  for  such  licensing  thus 
far  in  use  seems  to  be  by  a  non-poUtical  State  board, 
which  should  be  not  a  board  of  laymen  but  of  experts. 
Too  much  money  and  energy  are  involved  in  this  great 
educational  mechanism  to  permit  for  a  single  session 
any  wasteful  or  ineffective  use  of  the  time  and  means  de- 
voted to  its  purposes. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  SELECTION  OF  TEACHERS 

There  are  two  ways  by  which  the  members  of  society 
secure  service  from  their  fellows:  one  is  to  purchase  it 
directly,  as  a  transaction  between  individuals  or  between 
the  individual  and  an  organized  group  of  individuals; 
in  the  other  case  the  social  group  as  a  whole  calls  cer- 
tain of  its  members  to  perform  special  services  to  the 
community,  the  State,  or  the  nation.  This  call  may 
come  by  the  direct  franchise  of  the  people  or  through  an 
intermediary  body  of  men  selected  to  look  after  some 
special  department  of  the  interests  common  to  the  social 
group. 

I.    Method  of  Selection  of  Teachers 

Generally  speaking,  where  the  selection  of  the  service 
is  somewhat  involved  or  where  the  service  to  be  rendered 
is  of  such  a  character  as  to  require  special  care  in  the 
selection  of  those  who  are  to  serve  the  second  form  of 
call  by  the  social  group  is  employed.  This  is  true,  in 
the  main,  in  the  selection  of  those  who  deal  directly 
with  the  educational  problems  of  society.  The  chief 
exceptions  are  to  be  found  in  the  selection  of  those  called 
to  have  the  oversight  of  the  larger  educational  units,  as 
State  and  county  superintendents.  As  has  been  inti- 
mated in  a  previous  chapter,  it  is  believed  that  better 
results  might  be  had  if  these  officials  were  also  chosen 
by  the  intermediary  process.     Indeed,  the  experience  of 

182 


THE  SELECTION  OF  TEACHERS  183 

States  where  such  a  plan  has  been  tried  seems  to  support 
strongly  such  belief. 

2.     State-wide  System  of  Selection  Needed 

The  provision  by  society  for  the  special  training  of 
teachers  for  their  work  in  itself  implies  a  selection  and 
setting  aside  for  this  peculiar  and  vitally  important  ser- 
vice. We  have  seen  that  in  the  development  of  the  school 
it  was  first  local  in  character,  and  the  selection  of  teachers 
was  therefore  entirely  local  and  altogether  by  laymen 
rather  than  upon  expert  recommendation  of  any  sort. 
Even  in  the  Ucensing  of  persons  as  teachers  the  layman 
had  the  initiative.  Later,  as  our  educational  system  has 
developed,  the  tendency  has  been  to  cling  to  the  old 
traditional  custom  of  local  selection.  Only  by  slow  de- 
grees of  advancement  have  the  people  come  to  under- 
stand that  the  service  of  the  teacher  is  general  rather 
than  local  and  that,  consequently,  the  mechanism  for 
selecting  teachers  should  be  at  least  State-wide  in  its 
character  and  scope,  and  that  the  selection  should  be 
based  as  far  as  possible  on  expert  judgment. 

In  the  choosing  and  setting  aside  of  individuals  for 
other  departments  of  public  service  the  movement  to- 
ward central  control  has  usually  been  much  more  rapid. 
In  military  and  naval  affairs,  for  instance,  the  world-wide 
practice  of  State  and  national  selective  agencies  has  been 
recognized  practically  from  the  beginning.  In  civil  af- 
fairs we  have  general  State  and  national  civil  service 
with  licensing  based  on  examinations  by  experts.  As 
examples  we  may  note  the  various  lines  of  expert  service 
required  by  the  State  and  national  governments,  ad- 
mission of  lawyers  to  the  practice  of  their  profession; 
likewise  licensing  for  the  practice  of  medicine,  pharmacy, 
nursing,  architecture,  etc. 


184  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

If  any  advantage  whatever  could  come  from  a  more 
general  and  expert  control  in  selecting  and  certificating 
teachers,  surely  this  branch  of  service  should  demand 
that  immediate  adjustments  be  made  in  that  direction. 
Next  to  national  existence  itself  is  the  importance  of  our 
general  educational  system  in  its  relation  to  national 
well-being.  The  peculiarly  intimate  relationship  of  the 
teacher's  work  to  the  physical,  mental,  and  moral  health 
of  society  is  well  known  to  all.  Important  as  are  our 
military  safeguards,  our  expert  civil  service,  and  the 
other  lines  of  professional  service  mentioned  above,  not 
any  or  all  of  them  can  be  said  to  be  so  far-reaching,  so 
intimately  essential  to  the  very  fountains  of  our  national 
strength  and  prosperity,  as  are  the  means  of  insuring 
that  general  intelligence  and  morahty  for  which,  largely, 
the  teachers  of  our  schools  must  stand. 

3.    Magnitude  of  the  Teaching  Service 

This  is  but  repeating  in  another  form  the  trite  no- 
tion of  the  very  great  importance,  both  State  and  na- 
tional, of  the  service  rendered  by  our  teachers.  The  mag- 
nitude of  this  service  may  be  put  also  in  an  economic 
way,  although  the  figures  representing  this  value  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  bear  a  just  ratio  to  the  importance  of 
the  service  rendered  when  compared  with  the  economic 
expression  of  other  branches  of  social  service. 

The  cost  of  our  military  and  naval  defences  in  times 
of  peace,  when  compared  with  our  school  statistics,  will 
serve  to  illustrate  the  statement  made  in  the  last  para- 
graph. The  cost  of  maintaining  our  army  and  navy 
for  the  year  1908-9  was  approximately  $207,000,000. 
The  personnel  of  these  two  forces  numbered  138,276  for 
the  year  1910.  Put  on  a  per-capita  basis  this  would 
mean  about  $1,500  per  person. 


THE  SELECTION  OF  TEACHERS  185 

The  total  amount  paid  public-school  teachers  and  su- 
perintendents for  the  year  1908-9  was  $237,013,243. 
The  number  of  teachers  employed  in  the  public  schools 
for  the  same  year  was  506,453.  This  put  upon  a  per- 
capita  basis  gives  us  only  $468  per  person,  or  less  than 
one-third  the  cost  per  person  of  our  general  defensive 
and  police  service  in  times  of  peace. 

Even  with  this  comparatively  low  per-capita  cost, 
however,  we  must  not  forget  that  the  expenditure  is 
vast;  and  that,  taken  with  the  tremendous  social  values 
at  stake,  the  situation  calls  for  the  most  careful  selection 
of  those  who  are  to  teach.  There  is  involved  in  the 
problem  not  only  the  economic  significance  which  the 
above  figures  indicate  but  also  the  question  of  the  rela- 
tive conservation  or  waste  of  the  growing  time  of  child- 
hood and  youth, 

4.    Urgent  Need  of  Better  Methods  of  Selection 

The  work  of  teaching,  with  social  efiiciency  as  the  aim 
of  education,  calls  for  the  highest  possible  adaptation 
to  the  special  work  to  be  accomplished  as  well  as  the 
highest  degree  of  skill  in  its  performance.  Upon  the  suc- 
cess or  failure  of  the  work  of  our  teachers  are  to  depend 
largely  the  habits,  knowledge,  and  ideals  with  which  our 
young  men  and  women  are  to  take  their  places  in  the 
social  ranks.  In  short,  we  may  say  that,  ultimately, 
upon  the  degree  of  efficiency  of  our  methods  of  selecting 
the  teachers  of  our  children  depends  the  upbuilding  or 
undoing  of  the  nation — nothing  less. 

In  the  face  of  such  conditions  we  are  no  longer  left 
in  doubt  as  to  the  need  of  great  care  in  the  selection  of 
those  who  are  to  teach  and  to  supervise  our  schools. 
The  wonder  is  that  we  have  hesitated  so  long  and  still 
hesitate,  some  of  us,  to  do  the  obviously  necessary  thing 


186  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

— to  see  to  the  establishing  of  a  mechanism  whereby  we 
may  have  the  greatest  possible  security  in  regard  to  the 
capability  of  our  teachers  of  children  and  youth.  The 
trouble  is  that  there  is  a  considerable  number  of  good 
people  who  are  afraid  that  by  setting  up  certain  recog- 
nized standards  as  to  the  quahfications  of  teachers  we 
may  thereby  leave  out  some  very  desirable  individuals 
who  have  a  strong  native  ability  to  teach  but  are  not 
able  in  the  ordinary  way  to  meet  the  scholarship  and 
professional  standards  usually  set  up.  These  people 
seem  to  believe  in  making  rules  out  of  exceptions  rather 
than  providing  for  the  exceptional  cases  under  the  rules. 
They  forget,  perhaps,  that  standards  wisely  enforced  for 
a  generation  will  practically  eliminate  any  such  excep- 
tional class  because  those  who  come  after  will  take  heed 
and  prepare  to  meet  the  requirements. 

5.  Present  Practice  too  Cumbersome 

As  a  result  of  present  practice  we  have  a  very  cum- 
bersome and  complex  arrangement  for  the  licensing  of 
those  who  are  to  teach.  In  portions  of  New  England, 
particularly  in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut,  the  old 
local  or  town  system  of  certificating  is  still  in  use.  Under 
this  plan  the  certificates  are  usually  issued  by  laymen  on 
an  examination  which  is  mostly  oral  and  altogether  per- 
functory and  inadequate  as  a  means  of  testing  the  com- 
petency of  those  to  be  considered  ehgible  to  teach. 

6.  City  Certification — Its  Weakness 

In  most  of  the  States  some  of  the  cities,  acting  under 
special  charter,  are  permitted  to  determine  the  certifi- 
cation of  those  who  are  to  teach  in  the  city  system  of 
schools.  Generally  this  privilege  is  confijied  to  the  great 
cities.     In  some  States,  however,  this  plan  applies  to 


THE  SELECTION  OF  TEACHERS  187 

cities  and  towns  quite  generally,  as  in  the  State  of  Kan- 
sas. In  these  cases  the  examinations  are  usually  con- 
ducted by  experts,  although  under  some  State  systems 
the  examining  boards  are  composed  partly  of  laymen. 
Usually  the  standards  of  scholarship  and  professional 
training  maintained  by  the  larger  cities  are  higher  than 
those  represented  by  either  county  or  State  certification. 
In  some  instances,  however,  where  the  State  require- 
ments are  brought  to  a  high  level  of  efficiency  the 
cities  voluntarily  rehnquish  the  practice  and  accept  the 
certification  by  State  authority. 

The  chief  weakness  of  the  city  system  is  the  building 
up  of  a  local  or  provincial  school  of  educational  theory 
and  practice  through  the  somewhat  exclusive  methods 
used  in  filling  the  teaching  ranks.  This  is  emphasized 
by  the  presence,  in  most  of  the  cities  concerned,  of  a  local 
city  training-school.  Those  cities  which  are  able  to  make 
use  of  a  State  system  are  largely  freed  from  this  tendency, 
since  they  may  draw  their  supply  of  teachers  freely  from 
the  State  at  large. 

7.     County  Certification 

Next  to  the  town  or  city  system  comes  county  certifica- 
tion. Of  this  there  are  two  general  types :  the  strict  county 
system,  which  leaves  the  whole  matter  of  examining  and 
certificating  teachers  in  the  hands  of  the  county  com- 
missioner or  superintendent.  This  plan,  because  it  in- 
cludes the  larger  unit,  and  because  the  examinations  are, 
in  a  measure,  by  experts,  is  a  great  improvement  over 
the  town  system.  But  it  still  falls  short  of  highest  effi- 
ciency in  several  particulars.  It  still  makes  uniformity 
for  a  State  impossible.  Teachers  are  hampered  unnec- 
essarily in  transferring  from  one  part  of  the  State  to  an- 
other.    It  is  wasteful  of  community  resources  and  of  the 


188 


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194  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

time  and  money  of  teachers.  It  keeps  the  standards  of 
preparation  too  low.  Only  one  State,  Delaware,  now 
adheres  to  the  strict  county  plan. 

Then  there  is  the  modified  county  plan  by  which  the 
State  has  more  or  less  to  do  with  the  certification  in 
counties. 

In  the  States  making  use  of  this  modified  county  plan 
the  nature  of  the  modification  varies.^  It  may  be  by 
transfer  of  papers  from  one  county  to  another;  by  send- 
ing out  to  counties  uniform  questions  from  the  State 
department;  by  general  interchange  of  county  certifi- 
cates, either  voluntarily  or  by  legal  compulsion;  by  the 
forwarding  of  papers  to  the  State  superintendent  for 
validation  or  indorsement  by  him.  All  of  these  modi- 
fications are  efforts  to  eliminate  the  grosser  evils  of  the 
local  system. 

The  following  States  in  the  above  table  provide, 
with  or  without  restrictions,  for  transfer  or  indorsement 
of  certificates  in  other  counties:  California,  Colorado; 
Delaware,  Florida,  Georgia,  Idaho,  Illinois,  Kansas, 
Louisiana,  Michigan,  Mississippi,  Missouri,  Montana, 
New  Jersey,  New  York,  Ohio,  Oklahoma,  Pennsylvania, 
South  Carolina,  South  Dakota,  Tennessee. 

8.  State  Certification 

State  plans  of  certification  vary  from  the  State's  par- 
ticipation in  the  modified  county  plans  mentioned  above 
to  absolute  State  administration.  There  are  fifteen 
States  which  may  be  said  to  come  under  the  latter  class. 
Most  of  the  States,  to  be  exact,  twenty-eight,  where  the 
county  plan  prevails  also  issue  from  the  State  depart- 
ment or  through  a  State  board  certificates  of  a  higher 

»  Cubberley,  E.  P.,  Fifth  Year  Book,  Nat.  Society  for  Study  of  Edu- 
cation, part  II,  pp.  19-22. 


THE  SELECTION  OF  TEACHERS  195 

grade  valid  throughout  the  State,  and  usually  for  longer 
periods  than  those  issued  in  counties.  The  final  goal  to 
this  system  is  the  life  certificate.  The  advantages  of 
State  control  in  the  issuing  of  licenses  to  teach  are:  (i) 
general  uniformity  of  requirements  as  to  standards  of 
scholarship  and  professional  training;  (2)  the  wider 
range  of  validity  secured;  (3)  the  extension  of  the  term 
of  validity,  thus  reducing  the  number  of  examinations. 

9.    Lack  of  Conformity  to  Any  System  among  States 

Even  State  systems  as  now  organized  have  their  weak 
points.  There  are  no  common  standards  among  the 
several  States.  The  conditions  of  granting  are  compara- 
tively lax  in  some  States,  thus  making  the  practice  of 
interchange  between  States  a  matter  of  careful  investi- 
gation and  discrimination.  As  our  teachers  move  about 
freely  from  State  to  State,  this  again  is  a  drawback.  It 
is  gratifying  to  note  that  this  situation  is  receiving  at- 
tention at  the  hands  of  the  National  Education  Asso- 
ciation and  also  by  the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education. 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  on  the  essential  points  grounds  of 
agreement  among  the  States  may  be  found,  so  that  cer- 
tificates may  be  readily  transferable  from  one  State  to 
another,  if,  indeed,  they  are  not  validated  by  a  central 
board,  thus  making  them  good  anywhere  in  the  United 
States. 

The  large  number  and  variety  of  State  certificates  is- 
sued makes  it  difl&cult  to  express  these  in  ordinary  tabu- 
lar form.  For  this  reason  we  give  the  following  partially 
tabulated  description: 

1.  Whole  number  of  different  kinds,  399. 

2.  Number  of  States  issuing  some  form  of  life  certifi- 

cate, 39. 


196  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

3.  Number  of  States  issuing  certificates  of  limited 

duration  but  subject  to  renewal,  ;^;^.  Number 
renewing  only  on  re-examination,  4.  One  State 
extends  for  attendance  at  some  school. 

4.  There  are  3  States  in  which  the  limited-term  certifi- 

cates are  non-renewable  and  10  in  which  the 
lower-grade  certificates  are  not  renewable.  In 
14  States  provision  is  made  for  extending  the 
higher  grades  into  hfe  certificates.  Usually 
permits  and  temporary  certificates  are  non- 
renewable. 

5.  The  usual  forms  of  certificates  are  life:   first,  sec- 

ond, and  third  grades;  professional,  supervi- 
sory, high-school,  elementary,  special,  kinder- 
garten. Fourteen  States  issue  some  form  of 
professional  certificate,  9  a  supervisor's  certifi- 
cate, 14  issue  high-school  certificates,  14  kin- 
dergarten certificates,  and  13  make  all  State 
certificates  (except  certain  special  certificates) 
good  for  teaching  in  any  public  school. 

6.  The  basis  on  which  these  certificates  are  issued 

also  varies  greatly.  Life  certificates  are  issued 
on  examination,  or  on  college  or  normal-school 
diploma,  or  a  combination  of  examination  and 
diploma.  Twenty-nine  out  of  the  39  issue 
wholly  or  in  part  on  examination,  and  27  re- 
cognize, in  some  way,  college  or  normal-school 
certificates.  Some  experience,  varying  from 
fifteen  months  to  ten  years,  is  required  in 
nearly  all  cases,  the  average  being  between 
four  and  five  years, 
limited-term  certificates  are  usually  based  on  exami- 
nations. In  some  instances  diplomas  are  ac- 
cepted.    The  examinations  usually  cover  the 


THE  SELECTION  OF  TEACHERS  197 

subjects  taught  in  high  school,  or  certain  groups 
of  them,  together  with  some  test  along  profes- 
sional lines.  These  examinations  are  conducted 
by  the  State  superintendent,  the  State  board  of 
education,  or  a  State  board  of  examiners. 

When  we  consider  the  present  chaotic  condition  such 
a  consummation  as  suggested  above  seems  like  a  far 
call,  an  ideal  too  high  for  attainment.  Yet  when  once 
the  cUnging  to  the  traditional  practice  of  local  control 
in  certification  is  relinquished  the  greatest  obstacle  will 
be  removed.  It  rests  largely  with  those  engaged  in 
educational  work  to  determine  standards  as  to  training, 
probably  the  most  fundamental  thing  of  all;  duration 
and  extent  of  the  validity  of  certificates;  the  relative 
importance  of  training  and  examinations  as  a  basis  for 
granting  certificates.  Then,  if  by  some  power  of  persua- 
sion the  fee  system  can  be  abolished,  each  State  making 
provision  for  all  the  expense  connected  with  the  issuing 
of  teachers'  licenses,  we  shall  have  attained  practically 
the  fundamental  conditions  upon  which  to  base  a  free 
interchange,  among  the  States,  of  all  certificates  of 
teachers  and  supervisors  of  our  schools. 

10.    Recognition  of  Institutional  Training  as  a  Basis 
for  Certification 

One  of  the  most  vital  questions  still  remaining  un- 
settled with  reference  to  the  certification  of  teachers  is 
that  of  the  recognition  to  be  given  to  the  diplomas  of 
various  institutions  as  evidence  of  adequate  preparation 
for  teaching,  both  as  to  scholarship  and  professionally. 
It  would  seem  to  need  no  argument  to  demonstrate  the 
propriety  of  the  recognition,  by  any  State,  of  the  prep- 
aration of  teachers  in  institutions  or  departments  of  in- 


198  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

stitutions  maintained  by  the  State  for  that  purpose.  As 
E.  P.  Cubberley  puts  it:  "There  is  no  vaHd  excuse  for 
compelling  a  graduate  of  a  State  normal  school  to  pass 
a  county  examination  before  she  can  teach."  ^  Yet  it 
is  still  true  that  in  a  number  of  the  States  teachers  first 
entering  upon  the  work,  even  though  normal-school  grad- 
uates, must  pass  the  coimty  examination  in  order  to  get 
a  certificate  of  inferior  grade  and  for  short  duration, 
while  in  others  the  holder  of  such  a  diploma  may  at  once 
receive  a  life  certificate  to  teach  anywhere  in  the  State. 

It  is  likewise  true  that,  in  several  States,  college  and 
university  graduates  must  pass  county  examinations  to 
teach  or  supervise  until  they  have  the  experience  de- 
manded for  State  certification.  In  some  cases  these 
examinations  bear  little  or  no  relationship  to  the  actual 
teaching  work  which  the  candidates  are  to  do.  It  is,  to 
say  the  least,  an  anomaly  thus  to  permit  the  repudia- 
tion of  the  work  of  institutions  established  and  main- 
tained by  the  State  solely,  or  in  part  at  least,  for  the 
proper  preparation  of  teachers.  This  condition  of  things 
illustrates,  in  a  very  striking  way,  the  undue  value  which 
has  been  placed  upon  the  examination  as  a  test  for  fit- 
ness to  teach. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  granting  of  a  life  certificate 
without  future  condition  other  than  the  power  of  revo- 
cation usually  vested  in  the  superintendent  or  board 
which  issues  it  is,  perhaps,  as  bad  an  extreme  in  the 
opposite  direction.  The  safeguarding  of  our  schools 
would  seem  to  be  more  nearly  attained  if  renewals, 
based  on  clear  evidence  of  professional  advancement 
and  growth  satisfactory  both  in  kind  and  degree,  were 
required  once  in  five  or  ten  years. 

iln  Fifth  Year  Book,  Nat.  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education, 
part  II,  p.  76. 


THE   SELECTION  OF  TEACHERS  199 

11.  Summary  of  Conditions  Needed  for  Efficiency 

To  summarize,  we  need  to  secure  about  the  following 
conditions  in  order  to  insure  reasonable  efficiency  in  that 
general  scheme  of  selecting  teachers  which  we  call  licens- 
ing or  certification: 

1.  Proper  standards  of  scholarship  and  professional 

training  as  evidenced  (a)  by  the  preparation  of 
candidates  and  (b)  by  examinations  conducted 
by  experts  and  uniform  throughout  a  given 
State. 

2.  Greater  uniformity  both  as  to  the  grades  and  kinds 

of  certificates,  including  age  limit,  time,  and 
extent  of  validity. 

3.  The  assumption  by  the  State  of  all  cost  involved  in 

certification. 

4.  The  greatest  possible  freedom  of  interchange  of 

certificates  among  States. 

12.  Specific  Selection  by  Boards  and  Supervisors 

The  function  of  selecting  teachers,  however,  does  not 
cease  with  their  proper  certification.  By  such  a  setting 
apart  of  those  found  to  be  fitted,  in  a  few  of  the  more 
general  qualifications,  for  the  work  of  teaching,  society 
essays  to  protect  boards  of  education  against  a  large 
number  of  incompetent  individuals  who  would  otherwise 
seek  employment  in  the  schools.  There  still  remains  the 
selecting  of  teachers  for  particular  schools  and  for  specific 
lines  of  work  therein.  First  of  all,  there  are  to  be  chosen 
the  supervisors  of  the  work.  These  are  of  two  classes — 
general  and  special.  The  general  superintendents  may 
be  for  the  State,  the  county,  the  township,  or  district. 
In  the  former  two  cases  it  is  still  customary,  in  a  majority 
of  States,  to  choose  by  popular  election,  these  offices 


200  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

usually  ranking  as  of  minor  significance  in  the  general 
political  scheme  of  the  State  or  county,  and  the  selections 
depending  upon  the  hazards  of  the  usual  machinery  of 
partisan  politics.  We  have  already  suggested  the  desira- 
bility of  an  intermediary  board  with  appointive  power.^ 
While  the  members  of  such  boards  must  usually  be 
laymen  rather  than  experts,  yet  they  are  apt  to  be  more 
carefully  selected  with  reference  to  their  fitness  for  the 
duties  they  are  to  perform  and  they  may  be  entirely 
non-partisan  in  character. 

In  the  case  of  the  town  or  district  superintendent  the 
choice  is  almost  universally  vested  in  a  board  nearly 
always  non-partisan  in  make-up  although  generally  also 
composed  of  laymen. 

Special  supervisors  are  chosen  in  a  similar  manner, 
except  that  usually  nominations  are  made  by  the  gen- 
eral superintendent  acting  in  the  capacity  of  educational 
expert  for  the  board.  Such  supervisors  are  those  of 
kindergartens,  primary  grades,  music,  drawing,  physical 
culture  or  play,  manual  training,  domestic  science,  and 
arts.  Special  supervisors  are  sometimes  employed  under 
the  State  department  of  supervision,  and  very  generally 
in  cities.  With  the  adoption  of  county  units  of  control 
for  rural  education  they  would  be  employed  also  by 
county  boards.  Another  type  of  supervising  agency  is 
seen  in  the  ward  principal  of  a  city  system.  His  ap- 
pointment is  usually  upon  the  recommendation  of  the 
superintendent. 

13.    Importance  of  This  Function  of  Boards  of 
Education 

By  far  the  most  important  function  of  educational 
boards,  either  rural  or  urban,  is  the  selection  and  ap- 
pointment of  teachers  for  the  various  teaching  positions 
1  Chap.  vn. 


THE  SELECTION  OF  TEACHERS  201 

under  their  administration.  It  requires  a  careful  dis- 
criminating in  order  to  secure  for  each  place  to  be  filled 
the  most  desirable  teacher  available.  To  base  the  choice 
on  certification  alone  will  not  do.  This  sort  of  selection 
only  expresses  preference  on  the  side  of  general  quahfi- 
cations.  When  it  comes  to  the  particular  school  and 
the  particular  form  of  teaching  required,  other  grounds 
for  judging,  such  as  the  special  subjects  in  which  the 
teacher  is  prepared,  her  personal  qualifications,  etc., 
come  under  consideration.  These  are  matters  which 
cannot  always  be  clearly  determined  by  an  examination 
nor  by  personal  interviews.  Expert  judgment  by  those 
who  have  seen  the  teacher  at  work  either  in  a  training- 
school  or  as  a  regular  teacher,  if  given  fully  and  clearly, 
is  the  very  best  basis  upon  which  to  determine  a  candi- 
date's fitness  for  a  given  place. 

Of  course,  this  takes  for  granted  that  ordinary  stand- 
ards of  scholarship  and  professional  knowledge  have 
been  taken  care  of.  This  much  certification  ought  to 
accomplish.  The  problem  is  serious  enough  for  boards 
and  superintendents  without  having  to  question  these 
two  fundamental  points.  No  city,  for  instance,  should 
find  it  necessary  to  duplicate  the  machinery  for  examin- 
ing and  certificating  teachers.  The  State  should  take 
care  of  this,  leaving  the  city  free  to  select  teachers  at 
large  rather  than  to  be  compelled  to  become  provincial 
and  resort  to  the  inbreeding  process  of  the  city  training- 
school. 

14.    Expert  Observation  of  Work  as  a  Basis  for 
Selection 

The  most  effective  way  of  determining  a  teacher's 
fitness  for  a  place  is  by  expert  observation  of  her  work 
either  in  a  regular  school  situation  or  in  a  well-conducted 


202  ADMINISTRATION  OF   EDUCATION 

training-school.  The  next  best  basis  for  judging  a 
teacher  is  through  the  confidential  statements  of  experts 
who  have,  in  some  capacity,  supervised  or  inspected  her 
work.  The  least  desirable,  and  one  rapidly  becoming 
obsolete,  is  on  the  basis  of  general  testimonial  letters 
which,  to  be  comprehended,  must  often  be  read  "be- 
tween lines,"  and  which  are  often  outlawed  by  reason  of 
their  original  dates.  For  the  high  school  the  appoint- 
ment committees  of  colleges  and  universities  are  com- 
ing to  be  looked  upon  as  most  dependable  and  helpful. 
A  well-organized,  conscientious  teachers'  agency  is  also 
capable  of  rendering  valuable  service  both  to  would-be 
employers  and  those  seeking  employment. 

The  selection  of  teachers  for  rural  and  village  schools 
is  almost  entirely  by  laymen.  Often  it  occurs  that  little 
or  no  attention  is  paid  to  a  person's  real  qualifications 
as  teacher.  Frequently  it  happens  that  a  pretty-faced 
girl  or  a  stalwart  and  physically  masterful  youth  will 
win  an  appointment  with  scarcely  any  further  considera- 
tion. In  some  instances  this  situation  is  improving, 
however.  It  is  a  good  indication  of  progress  when  the 
superintendent  or  commissioner  of  a  county  is  called 
upon  to  advise  with  boards  of  directors  or  trustees  in  the 
selection  of  teachers,  or  when  such  an  official  will  go  out 
of  his  way  to  suggest  a  suitable  candidate  or  put  the 
appointing  authorities  on  guard  against  a  possible  mis- 
take in  choosing. 

In  the  towns  and  smaller  cities  the  local  superinten- 
dent is  now  often  called  in  to  advise  with  the  board  in 
filling  vacancies  in  the  teaching  corps.  This  is  as  it 
should  be.  The  man  who  is  to  be  held  responsible  for 
the  successful  operation  of  the  entire  system  should  cer- 
tainly be  entitled  to  some  voice  in  the  selection  of  those 
who  are  to  work  with  him.     It  is  true  that  greater  re- 


THE  SELECTION  OF  TEACHERS  203 

sponsibility  on  his  part  is  thus  assumed;  but  the  chief 
reason  for  the  higher  salary  paid  him  is  his  ability  and 
obligation  to  render  just  such  expert  service. 

15.    Methods  and  Difficulties  of  Large  Cities 

In  the  larger  systems  of  our  great  cities  the  business 
of  nominating  and  appointing  teachers  is  a  much  more 
complicated  affair.  In  either  case  the  constant  struggle 
must  be  against  the  appointment  through  "pull"  or 
political  influence  of  those  having  little  or  no  other 
claim  on  which  to  base  their  appointment.  The  fre- 
quent resort  which  is  had  to  such  means  in  some  of  our 
great  centres  exercises  a  baneful  influence  upon  many  of 
our  young  men  and  young  women  who  are  just  entering 
upon  the  work  of  teaching.  They  get  the  notion,  some- 
how, that  the  matter  of  "influence"  is  the  all-important 
thing  in  securing  an  appointment.  The  result  is  almost 
inevitably  a  lower  standard  of  professional  aims  and 
ideals  on  their  part,  a  condition  which  usually  marks 
the  "beginning  of  the  end"  of  their  teaching  careers. 
Fortunate  indeed  is  it  for  the  cause  of  education  that 
most  of  our  teachers  are  willing  to  base  their  claims  for 
appointment  solely  upon  professional  training  and  ability. 

A  Uttle  correspondence  with  fifty  of  our  larger  cities 
has  revealed  some  very  interesting  facts  as  to  the  basis 
upon  which  teachers  are  chosen  for  specific  assignment 
to  places  in  the  schools.  Thirty-eight  out  of  the  fifty 
have  been  heard  from.  Of  these  thirty-eight  cities 
twenty-eight  certificate  their  teachers,  although  not  all 
do  so  exclusively.  Twenty-three  have  city  training- 
schools  or  teachers'  colleges.  Four  of  the  cities  train 
both  high-school  and  elementary  teachers.  The  training 
of  kindergarten  teachers  is  also  provided  for  in  most  of 
the  twenty-three  cities  which  have  public  kindergartens. 


204  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

Three  other  cities  not  counted  in  the  twenty-three  have 
normal  or  training  classes.  Four  cities,  Los  Angeles, 
Oakland,  Spokane,  and  Nashville,  neither  certificate  nor 
train  their  own  teachers.  In  New  York,  Virginia,  and 
California  State  certification  is  quite  generally  accepted 
by  the  cities.  In  Philadelphia  the  training-school  was 
recently  abolished  after  an  existence  of  twenty-two  years. 
By  far  the  most  important  information  received  has 
to  do  with  the  methods  of  appointment  in  use,  with 
especial  reference  to  the  basis  for  selecting  teachers  for 
particular  positions.  It  is  certainly  true  that  the  prob- 
lem here  confronted  by  education  boards  may  be  greatly 
simplified  by  a  proper  guarding  of  the  two  functions 
suggested  in  the  facts  just  given.  But  there  still  remain 
difficulties  to  be  gotten  over.  The  tabular  presentation 
given  on  pp.  205-207  will  give  a  pretty  good  idea  of  the 
methods  in  use  in  our  large  cities  in  the  selecting  and 
appointment  of  teachers  as  this  function  concerns  the 
actual  work  to  be  done. 

16.     Examples  of  Methods  Used  by  Cities 

In  order  to  present  more  concretely  the  method  of 
procedure  in  appointing  teachers  the  plans  followed  by 
a  few  of  the  larger  cities  are  given  here  more  in  detail. 
Following  is  that  for  Denver: 

The  teachers  are  elected  by  the  board  of  education,  but  first 
must  be  present  at  the  examination  conducted  by  the  superin- 
tendent of  city  schools.  The  scholarship  examination  embraces 
orthography,  reading,  arithmetic,  English  grammar  and  com- 
position, geography,  American  history,  elementary  sciences, 
theory  and  practice  of  teaching,  English  literature,  elements  of 
vocal  music,  and  elementary  drawing.  All  candidates  who  are 
graduates  of  the  Colorado  Normal  School,  the  University  of 
Colorado,  or  other  educational  institutions  of  equal  rank  and 


THE  SELECTION  OF  TEACHERS 


205 


r. 

CityTrain- 

City 

H 
8 

ing-School 

Basis  for  Selection  and  Appointment 
of  Teachers 

go 

.•It 
"1 

<a 

ST3 

6 

^^ 

ti^S 

Atlanta 

Scholarship,  personality,  etc. 

Baltimore 

X 

On    competitive    examinations    for 
elementary    grades.    These    are    in 
"training  and  knowledge"  and  "apt- 
ness to  teach."    The  latter  is  deter- 
mined by  actual  teaching  as  substi- 
tutes. 

Birmingham ) 
.\]a.            5 

•V 

{ 

Eligible  list  based  on  formal  applica- 

tions, with  private  correspondence. 

Boston 

X 

X 

According  to  normal  grades. 

Cambridge 

X 

Elementary  by  record  in  training- 
school.     High  school  on  experience 
from  other  schools. 

Chicago 

X 

X 

Elementary    by    graduation     from 
training-school     or     State     normal 
schools.     High  schools  on  examina- 
tion.    Eligible  lists  are  made  from 
these  sources.     Principals  select  from 
these  lists  in  regular  order  and  nomi- 
nate.    Superintendent    recommends 
and  board  approves. 

Cincinnati 

X 

X 

Elementary  on  basis  of  two  years  of 
normal  training  beyond  high-school 
graduation  with  record  for  practice 
teaching.     High-school    or     college 
graduation  with  professional  train- 
ing and  two  years'  experience  in  pub- 
lic-school teaching. 

Denver 

X 

High  school:  degree  from  standard 
college — selected    by    high-school 
board  of  examiners.     Elementary  on 
examination  by  superintendent. 

DeUoit 

From  eligible  list  made  up  of  gradu- 
ates of  city  or  State  normal  schools, 
those  holding  State  life  certificates, 
or  on  examination. 

206 


ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 


i2 

City  Train- 

■ 

ing-School 

^^ 

■s^ 

City 

If 

21 

Basis  for  Selection  and  Appointment 
of  Teachers 

3 

Eg 

•28 

1 

11 

Fall  River 

X 

In  order  of  graduation  and  on  ability 
shown  in  substitute  work. 

Grand  Rapids 

X 

On  recommendation  of  superinten- 
dent. 

Indianapolis 

X 

X 

Merit  only. 

Jersey  City 

X 

X 

In  order  of  ranking  on  eligible  lists. 

Kansas  City 

X 

Examinations,  recommendations,  and 
such  information  as  can  be  gathered. 

Los  Angeles 

Merit  based  on  competitive  examina- 
tions.    Personal,  political,  or  social 
influence  forbidden. 

Louisville 

X 

X 

On  ranking  for  normal-school  gradu- 
ates.   On    successful    experience    in 
supplying  departmental  schools.  Also 
college  graduates  after  probation  of 
two  or  three  months. 

Lowell 

X 

In  order  of  graduation  from  training- 
school. 

Memphis 

X 

Examination  grade,  experience,  and 
training. 

Milwaukee 

X 

Select  from  eligibles  one  best  fitted 
for  position. 

Minneapolis 

X 

Reliable  reports  on  preparation  of 
teacher. 

Nashville 

Elected  from  eligible  list — assigned 
by  instruction  committee  and  super- 
intendent. 

Newark 

X 

X 

According  to  rating  on  graduation 
from  city  normal  school. 

New  Haven 

X 

From  State  normal  graduates  or  by 
recommendation  of  superintendent. 

New  Orleans 

X 

X 

Grade  made  on  final  examination. 

New  York 

X 

X 

Eligible  lists  prepared  by  board  of 
examiners — according     to     ranking. 
For   high   schools   separate   eligible 
lists  by  subjects.     Principals  select 
according  to  subject. 

THE  SELECTION  OF  TEACHERS 


207 


City 


Oakland 

Omaha 

Paterson 


Philadelphia 
Providence 

Richmond 

Rochester 


San  Francisco 


Saint  Louis 


Seattle 
Spokane 

Syracuse 

Washington 

Worcester 


X 


CityTrain- 
ing-Scbool 


X 


■S  B 


X 


Basis  for  Selection  and  Appointment 
of  Teachers 


On  merit  determined  by  references. 
Discretion  of  superintendent. 
Elementary  by  rank  of  graduation 
from  city  training-schools,  high 
school  on  competitive  examination. 
In  order  of  standing  on  eligible  lists. 
Upon  record  made  in  training  for  one 
year. 

Superintendent    recommends,    com- 
mittee nominates. 

Superintendent  nominates  principals 
from  first  ten  names  certified  by 
board  of  examiners.  Superintendent 
and  principals  constitute  board  for 
nominating  teachers. 
After  probationary  term  of  two  years, 
on  recommendation  of  superinten- 
dent. 

Grade  teachers  from  graduates  of 
teachers'  college,  by  rank  and  order 
of  graduation.  High  school  and 
special  by  specific  information  con- 
cerning applicants. 
On  merit. 

Select  the  best  obtainable  for  money 
from  any  source. 

In  order  of  standing  on  merit  lists. 
In  order  of  ranking  on  eligible  lists. 
First  on  examination.  Those  exam- 
ined must  be  graduates  of  a  four- 
year  high  school  and  of  a  normal 
school  with  a  three  years'  course. 
Examination  marks  are  averaged 
with  those  of  experience.  Names 
are  put  on  the  waiting  list  in  order  of 
marks  from  this  averaging. 


208  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

character  are  required  to  take  only  the  examination  in  English 
grammar  and  composition. 

The  scholarship  examination  is  impersonal.  Candidates  who 
have  reached  a  satisfactory  rank  in  the  scholarship  test  will  ap- 
pear before  the  board  of  education  and  be  asked  for  testimonials, 
account  of  experience  and  references.  They  will  be  given  rank 
in  accordance  with  the  judgment  of  the  board  of  education,  the 
scholarship  examination  obtained  being  an  equal  factor  in  the 
computation. 

Teachers  who  have  taught  in  these  schools  and  who  have 
absented  themselves  from  the  work  for  one  year  or  more  will 
be  obliged  to  re-enter  the  examination  in  order  to  obtain  a  legal 
certificate. 

Scholarship  alone  will  not  produce  a  certificate.  The  record 
of  the  candidate,  with  her  accredited  experience  in  public-school 
work,  the  scholarship  standing  as  rated  at  the  examination,  and 
the  personal  appearance  are  the  chief  elements  considered. 

A  physician's  certificate  of  good  health  is  required  of  candi- 
dates before  engagement. 

From  the  list  of  those  who  hold  certificates  vacancies  are 
filled,  the  selection  being  made  in  the  order  of  the  standing  at 
examination,  thus  making  the  trial  somewhat  competitive  in 
character. 

Teachers  are  not  confirmed  in  their  appointment  before  the 
close  of  the  twelfth  week  of  service.  When  the  appointment  is 
confirmed  the  engagement  is  likely  to  be  permanent,  subject  to 
the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  board. 

The  plan  followed  by  the  OaJdand,  Cal.,  board  is  also 
interestmg: 

1.  It  is  hereby  made  the  duty  of  the  city  superintendent  of 
schools  to  seek  out  and  request  teachers  of  exceptional  ability  to 
make  applications  for  positions  in  the  Oakland  school  depart- 
ment. 

2.  All  candidates  for  positions  in  the  Oakland  school  depart- 
ment must  submit  with  their  application  blank  a  certificate 
signed  by  the  director  of  health  of  the  school  department,  or 
some  other  person  authorized  by  him,  showing  that  the  holder 
is  sound  in  health  and  physically  able  to  do  effective  teaching. 


CHAPTER  XI 
PHYSICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF   SCHOOLS 

I.    Magnitude  of  the  Problem 

Not  least  among  the  problems  of  boards  of  education 
in  preparing  for  the  active  work  of  the  school  is  that  of 
a  suitable  physical  equipment.  The  total  valuation  of 
school  property  for  all  State  systems  in  1909-10  was 
$1,100,007,512.  This  makes  a  considerable  investment, 
even  when  scattered  over  so  large  an  area,  in  property 
to  be  cared  for  and  kept  in  condition  by  the  various 
boards.  Under  the  above  heading  are  to  be  included 
grounds,  buildings,  furnishings  and  apparatus,  play  and 
athletic  fields,  fields  for  experimentation  in  agriculture. 

In  older  communities  existing  types  of  buildings  and 
groimds  add  materially  to  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of 
educational  progress.  Just  as  in  building  railroads  the 
strap  iron  has  given  place  to  the  heavy  steel  rail,  and 
sharp  grades  and  long  circuits  have  been  eliminated  by 
heavy  fills  and  cuts  and  timnelling,  so  the  old  type  of 
school  building,  with  its  cramped  ground  space  and  its 
still  more  cramped  rooms  and  corridors,  has  had  to  yield 
to  more  extensive  grounds  and  to  buildings  constructed 
on  much  more  generous  lines.  All  of  these  advances  in- 
volve large  increase  in  cost.  We  must  pay  the  price  of 
progress  in  all  these  fields  of  human  achievement  or  else 
remain  at  a  standstill. 

200 


210  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

Could  society  but  foresee  the  direction  of  movement 
and  consequent  needs  that  would  result  from  the  evolu- 
tion through  which  we  are  passing  in  all  these  new 
fields  of  action,  much  of  what  now  seems  waste  and  loss 
might  possibly  be  avoided.  Yet  where  is  the  economist 
who  will  venture  to  assert  that  the  seeming  waste  and 
loss  are  real?  Just  how  long  must  the  physical  plant 
of  any  public  utility  continue  in  use  in  order  to  balance 
the  cost  of  labor  involved  in  its  construction?  The  ideas 
it  embodies,  together  with  those  which  experience  has 
added,  are  indestructible.  The  laborer  is  still  ready  to 
serve  in  order  to  live.  The  raw  material,  or  that  which 
may  be  substituted  for  the  original,  is  nature's  gift  to 
man.  If  only  there  are  enough  to  labor,  and  if  men  are 
honest,  the  rest  will  adjust  itself  without  a  ripple  in  the 
great,  swift  currents  of  trade  and  industry. 

We  lack  most  of  all  vision  in  directing  these  great 
constructive  movements.  Too  often  we  look  behind  us 
to  see  what  has  been  and  forget  to  look  before  us  to  con- 
sider, in  the  light  of  the  past  and  of  present  trend,  what 
is  to  be.  It  is  thus  in  this  matter  of  equipping  our 
schools.  We  need  to  build  for  the  future  rather  than 
the  present;  for  what  should  be  rather  than  for  what  is 
or  has  been. 

2.    General  Conditions  to  Be  Cared  for 

Again  we  must  deal  with  types.  But,  first  of  all,  there 
are  some  very  important  general  matters,  applicable 
alike  to  all  types,  that  should  be  disposed  of.  The  site 
selected  should,  as  far  as  possible,  harmonize  with  the 
purposes  of  the  school  plant.  It  should  be  sanitary,  free 
from  noise  or  disturbing  influences,  reasonably  easy  of 
access  to  all,  when  all  things  are  considered,  and  cer- 
tainly large  enough  to  provide  room  for  the  complete 


PHYSICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOLS         211 

organization  of  all  that  should  be  undertaken  by  the 
school,  including  all  out-of-door  exercises. 

Buildings  should  be  constructed  on  plans  determined 
primarily  by  what  things  a  particular  school  aims  to  do. 
Due  regard  should  be  had  in  their  construction  for  the 
safety  and  comfort  of  pupils  and  teachers.  They  should 
be  so  constructed  as  to  provide  a  sufficiency  of  light, 
fresh  air,  and  warmth  during  the  cold  weather  if  in  a 
climate  given  to  extremes  of  temperature.  The  furnish- 
ings and  equipment  of  buildings  should  likewise  accord 
with  their  purposes,  and  should  be  adapted  to  con- 
venience, facility,  and  good  sanitation  in  all  exercises 
of  the  school. 

Before  proceeding  to  carry  out  any  very  extensive 
building  projects  a  school  board  should  make  a  careful 
survey  of  the  educational  situation  and  should  adopt 
such  a  building  policy  as  is  most  likely  to  be  in  line  with 
the  trend  of  educational  progress.  Otherwise  new  and 
expensive  structures  may  be  out  of  date  and  poorly 
adapted  to  the  school  work  long  before  their  reasonable 
term  of  usefulness  has  expired.  As  an  illustration,  if  a 
school  system  in  a  city  is  beginning  to  consider  the  adop- 
tion of  what  is  known  as  the  six-four-four  plan  the  board 
should  take  into  account  the  advisability  of  erecting  dif- 
ferent types  of  buildings  for  the  six  elementary  grades, 
the  four  intermediate^  grades,  and  the  four  high-school 
and  junior  college  grades  respectively. 

Such  a  plan  has  been  worked  out  in  a  very  complete 
way  by  the  city  of  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Superintendent  Francis.  While  this  is  a  subject 
to  be  considered  more  fully  under  a  different  head,  it  is 

^  The  terms  elementary,  intermediate,  and  high  school  are  here  used 
as  referring  to  organization  under  the  six-four-four  plan.  Intermediate 
would  therefore  include  grades  seven  to  ten,  inclusively. 


212  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

quite  in  order  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  such  a 
division  of  the  work  of  our  common  schools,  with  build- 
ings constructed  so  as  to  facilitate  the  work,  lends  itself 
more  readily  to  the  adjustments  that  are  being  called 
for  in  our  system  of  school  training  than  any  other 
scheme  that  has  yet  been  devised.  In  fact,  it  may  be 
fairly  assumed  that  if  we  are  to  adjust  our  schools,  as 
a  unified  system,  so  as  to  include  vocational  education, 
some  such  readjustment  will  be  necessary  and  inevitable. 

3.     The  Elementary  Building 

The  building  for  an  elementary  school  should  be  dis- 
tinctively a  children's  house.  In  style  of  architecture, 
in  arrangement  of  grounds,  and  in  interior  and  exterior 
equipment  the  study  should  be  to  make  such  a  build- 
ing attractive  for  children,  at  the  same  time  that  all  the 
essential  adjuncts  to  the  exercises  of  the  elementary 
school  should  be  provided.  These  would  include  types 
of  rooms  and  their  suitable  arrangement,  such  as  class- 
rooms, workrooms,  assembly-room,  exercise  rooms,  lunch 
rooms,  rest  rooms  for  teachers  and  pupils;  proper  sani- 
tary conditions,  including  cloak-rooms  and  basement; 
suitable  decorations  and  adornments  as  well  as  the  utili- 
ties of  classroom  work. 

4.    The  Intermediate  Type 

The  intermediate  school  should  be  planned  for  depart- 
mental work,  and  should  have  its  shop  or  shops,  which 
may  better  be  one-story  affairs  and  detached  from  the 
main  structure.  The  main  building  should  be  provided 
with  workrooms  and  laboratories,  although  not  on  as 
elaborate  a  scale  as  the  high  school.  There  will  be 
needed,  also,  study  room,  rest  room,  assembly  hall,  li- 
brary, limch  room,  gymnasium  and  swimming  pool,  with 


PHYSICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOLS         213 

shower-baths.  In  the  equipment  for  instruction  there 
should  be  a  relatively  large  amount  of  illustrative  ma- 
terial as  compared  with  the  high  school,  such  as  maps 
and  charts,  pictures,  lantern-slides,  samples  of  building 
materials,  collections  illustrative  of  the  great  manufac- 
turing and  commercial  industries,  etc. 

5.    City  High-School  Buildings 

The  city  high-school  building  should  be  a  comf)Osite 
structure  with  large  grounds.  It  should  be  planned  so 
as  to  permit  all  kinds  of  activities  typical  of  the  essen- 
tial features  of  community  life.  The  main  or  central 
structure  should  provide  for  the  administrative  features, 
classrooms  for  academic  work,  and  study  rooms.  An- 
other section  of  the  building  or  buildings  should  provide 
laboratories,  lecture-rooms,  and  all  accessories  for  the 
different  lines  of  science  work.  There  should  be  some- 
where generous  space  devoted  to  art  and  design  and  to 
household  arts  and  home  economics.  The  shops  should 
be  by  themselves,  including  equipment  for  such  voca- 
tional lines  as  the  particular  school  is  to  offer.  There 
should  also  be  suitable  space  for  cafeteria  lunch  service; 
gymnasiums  with  baths  and  swimming  pools  for  boys  and 
girls  separately;  an  auditorium  of  ample  seating  capacity 
and  stage  room;  a  music-room;  a  library.  Some  rooms 
should  be  provided  for  the  meetings  of  special  groups  of 
students  in  connection  with  their  activities.  If  the 
school  is  to  become  a  social  and  literary  centre  for  the 
community,  there  should  be  rooms  planned  and  equipped 
for  the  use  of  clubs  and  other  organizations  and  for 
lectures  and  amusements.  All  the  rooms  and  depart- 
ments should  be  suitably  equipped  with  furnishings  and 
apparatus  of  the  most  approved  types  for  the  various 
exercises  and  activities  of  the  school. 


214  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

Somewhere  in  connection  with  each  high-school  build- 
ing or  at  an  accessible  distance  should  be  ample  ath- 
letic grounds  with  opportunity  for  field  sports  for  both 
sexes.  In  connection  with  the  system  of  elementary  and 
intermediate  schools  there  should  also  be  ample  play- 
ground facilities,  perhaps  larger  than  the  grounds  imme- 
diately connected  with  each  building,  where  the  school 
children  of  each  of  a  series  of  larger  districts  of  the 
city  may  go  for  their  out-of-door  exercise  and  play. 
These  grounds  should  all  be  properly  equipped  and  under 
the  supervision  of  expert  directors  of  play  and  sport. 

6.    The  Small-City  or  Town  Type 

For  the  small  city,  the  town,  or  village  the  study 
should  be  to  embody  in  the  one  building  possible  as 
many  of  the  features  given  above  as  the  nature  and  size  of 
the  community  may  require.  Here,  especially,  is  needed 
that  careful  survey  suggested  earlier  in  this  chapter  as 
a  basis  for  a  clearly  defined  educational  policy,  in  order 
to  determine,  among  other  things,  what  kind  of  build- 
ing is  to  be  supplied.  One  of  the  most  wasteful  things 
in  school  administration  is  to  be  found  in  the  kind  of 
physical  equipment  that  is  often  provided  in  these  smaller 
centres.  The  necessity  arises  for  a  new  school  building. 
The  honest  and  well-meaning  citizens  who  constitute 
the  board  know  little  about  educational  needs  or  how 
to  provide  for  them  in  the  physical  equipment.  They 
simply  know  that  a  house  is  to  be  built,  with  walls  and 
roof,  and  to  be  divided  into  about  as  many  rooms  as 
there  are  teachers.  Result:  a  structure  that  is  likely  to 
handicap  and  render  more  or  less  ineffective  the  educa- 
tional work  of  that  community  for  twenty  years  or  more. 

The  difficulty  is  that  these  men  have  had  no  oppor- 
timity  to  learn  the  need  and  value  of  wise  expert  direc- 


PHYSICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOLS         215 

tion  in  such  matters.  The  provision  in  each  county  of 
one  capable  expert  clothed  with  the  necessary  author- 
ity would  remedy  all  this  and  remove  one  of  the  serious 
drawbacks  to  educational  progress.  Under  a  county 
board  such  expert  direction,  affecting  all  schools,  rural 
as  well  as  in  village  and  town,  would  be  readily  practi- 
cable; for  the  same  general  principles  as  to  buildings 
and  grounds  for  the  town  should  also  apply  to  the 
country  schools. 

7.     Special  Provisions  and  Equipments 

In  each  city  and  county  system  (assuming  county 
organization  of  rural  and  village  schools),  rooms  should 
be  provided,  at  central  points,  for  the  various  dental, 
throat,  nose,  and  ear  clinics  in  connection  with  the  health- 
officer's  department.  There  should  also  be  provision  in 
the  way  of  rooms  and  apparatus  for  the  psychological 
clinic,  with  special  rooms  somewhere  for  the  educational 
treatment  prescribed  for  all  abnormal  children  suscep- 
tible to  treatment  in  an  educational  way.  In  some  in- 
stances separate  buildings,  designed  for  this  particular 
purpose,  are  provided  for  such  special  educational  treat- 
ment. 

The  provision  of  library  facilities  for  schools  has  re- 
cently become  a  matter  of  great  interest  and  consequent 
growth.  In  the  first  place,  under  the  stimulus  of  great 
benefactions,  especially  those  by  Andrew  Carnegie,  and 
aided  not  a  little  by  the  prosperous  times  of  the  past 
fifteen  years,  public  libraries  have  increased  immensely. 
In  the  year  191 2  alone  Andrew  Carnegie  and  the  Car- 
negie Corporation  g^ve  $2,236,953  for  public  libraries. 
Gifts  from  other  sources  amounted  to  $3,265,825,  making 
a  total  of  $5,502,778  in  one  year's  gifts  for  libraries.  In 
addition  to  this  there  were  given  115,954  volumes,  16 


216  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

sites  for  buildings,  and  13  buildings  for  library  purposes. 
In  most  of  the  larger  cities  and  in  connection  with  a 
number  of  the  large  universities  a  similar  expansion  in 
library  facilities  is  noticeable.^ 

In  many  cases  schools  have  taken  advantage  of  these 
increased  library  faciUties.  Library  boards  are  gener- 
ally glad  to  co-operate  with  the  school  in  making  up 
lists  of  books  suitable  for  school  use  and  also  in  provid- 
ing all  conveniences  necessary  for  ready  access  to  this 
service  by  the  pupils. 

In  the  cities  substations  and  depositories  of  the  cen- 
tral libraries  are  provided  in  order  to  facilitate  such  ac- 
cess for  the  schools  as  well  as  for  the  public  in  general. 
For  the  rural  towns  and  districts  extension  circuits  have 
been  established  in  many  instances  by  means  of  which 
books  from  central  libraries  may  be  loaned  periodically 
to  the  schools. 

Such  provisions  are  a  great  source  of  benefit  to  the 
school  work.  But  boards  of  education  should  not  over- 
look the  fact  that  there  will  need  to  be  a  liberal  supply 
of  books  for  daily  use  available  at  all  times  and  without 
loss  of  time  in  the  pursuit  of  modern  school  work.  This 
is  true  of  all  grades,  but  most  emphatically  true  of  high 
schools. 

The  school  museum  of  illustrative  materials  for  the 
teaching  of  history,  geography,  and  other  sciences  is  also 
capable  of  becoming  a  much  more  important  feature  in 
material  equipment  than  it  has  yet  done.  In  the  same 
category  also  are  lantern-slides,  which  should  be  avail- 
able not  only  from  a  central  depository  of  the  State,  as 
in  the  case  of  New  York,  but  may  well  become  a  part  of 
the  regular  equipment  of  the  school  system  of  a  city  or 
county. 

» See  U.  S.  Com.  Report,  1912,  vol.  I,  pp.  379-406. 


PHYSICAL  EQUIPMENT  OF  SCHOOLS         217 

It  may  be  said  in  a  general  way  with  regard  to  normal 
schools,  State  universities,  and  special  institutions  for 
the  education  of  defectives  or  delinquents  that  the  same 
general  principles  should  apply  as  are  laid  down  for  the 
physical  equipment  of  the  lower  schools.  There  should 
be,  first  of  all,  a  clearly  defined  policy  as  to  the  general 
scope  and  aim  of  the  work  to  be  undertaken  as  far  as 
it  relates  to  grounds,  buildings,  or  other  items  of  equip- 
ment. The  development  of  the  physical  plan  should 
then  be  in  harmony  with  this  policy,  permitting  of  such 
flexibility  in  certain  directions  as  to  render  possible  ad- 
justments to  new  and  unforeseen  emergencies.  Some 
way  should  then  be  provided  by  which  such  plans  of 
development  might  be  made  continuous  indefinitely,  re- 
gardless of  changes  in  administrative  bodies  having  in 
hand  the  general  management  of  these  institutions. 


PART   THREE 
THE  ADMINISTRATION  OF   INSTRUCTION 

CHAPTER  Xn 

RECAPITULATION    AND    DEFINITION 

We  now  come  to  the  discussion  of  that  part  of  our 
subject  toward  which,  as  an  objective,  we  have  thus 
far  been  moving;  for  all  the  vast  and  intricate  mech- 
anism set  up  and  maintained  by  society  through  laws 
enacted,  through  the  estabhshment  of  various  types 
of  schools,  through  boards  of  education  and  physical 
equipment,  through  the  training  and  selection  of  teachers, 
exists  primarily  that  children  and  youth  may  be  taught. 
The  significant  thing  about  all  that  we  have  thus  far 
reviewed,  tested,  and  reconstructed  in  theory  is  in  the 
fact  that,  after  all,  society  is  thus  to  delegate  and  trans- 
fer to  educational  experts  whom  society  herself  provides 
as  supervisors  and  teachers  the  actual  work  of  instruc- 
tion. 

I.    The  Mechanism  of  Administration  Viewed  as  a 
Whole 

As  a  preparation  for  this  transfer,  we  have  witnessed 
the  definite  setting  aside  of  a  large  group  of  men  and 
women  organized  into  a  vast  system  known  as  the  system 

218 


RECAPITULATION  AND   DEFINITION         219 

of  public  education.  Let  us  now  view  this  mechanism 
briefly  as  a  whole  from  the  standpoint  of  the  actual 
work  of  instruction.  The  number  of  persons  included 
in  the  complete  organization  of  the  public-school  system 
can  be  given  only  approximately.  There  are  in  State 
common-school  systems  506,453  teachers.  Of  these 
144,784  teachers  and  14,392  supervising  officers  are  in 
villages  and  cities  having  populations  of  4,000  or  more. 
Four  thousand  eight  hundred  and  fourteen  more  are  em- 
ployed in  the  instructional  work  of  the  196  State  normal 
schools,  and  7,321  make  up  the  instructional  forces  of 
the  89  colleges  and  universities  under  city.  State,  or  na- 
tional control.  This  makes  a  grand  total  of  518,588, 
probably  not  including  State  and  county  superintendents 
and  their  various  assistants. 

This  instructional  body  had  under  instruction  (figures 
for  1909-10)  the  total  number  of  12,864,464  persons,  or 
an  average  of  about  25  to  each  one  instructing.  The 
total  cost  to  States  and  municipalities  was,  approxi- 
mately, $430,384,841,  including  both  operating  expenses 
and  additional  buildings.  These  figures  give  us  some 
idea  of  the  magnitude  of  the  work  and  of  its  cost  to 
society.  How  may  this  mechanism  as  a  whole  best  be 
organized  in  order  to  give  to  society  the  highest  possible 
dividend  from  the  investment  of  men  and  money  it  is 
putting  into  the  enterprise? 

2.    Conclusions  from  What  Precedes 

There  are  some  very  definite  conclusions  to  be  drawn 
from  what  has  preceded.  First  of  all  there  needs  to  be 
singleness  of  purpose  in  the  minds  of  all  our  citizens  in 
regard  to  this  whole  scheme  of  education.  It  is  estab- 
lished and  maintained  solely  in  order  that  the  young, 
while  still  most  susceptible,  may  be  so  educated  as  to  be 


220  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

able  to  start  out  in  life  abreast  of  their  day  in  a  knowl- 
edge of  all  that  is  best  in  human  experiences  and  achieve- 
ment. The  laws  of  the  schools  are  enacted  for  this  pur- 
pose. To  this  end,  and  not  for  political  gain,  boards  of 
education  are  elected.  Only  for  this,  and  not  for  the 
benefit  of  school  treasurers  or  banking  houses,  are  per- 
manent school  funds  established  or  taxes  levied  by  dis- 
trict or  State.  As  a  definite  means  to  this  end,  never  to 
give  sustenance  to  those  in  need  by  giving  away  public 
jobs,  are  teachers  educated  and  selected  for  their  pecu- 
liar work.  Not  for  the  benefit  of  architects,  or  con- 
tractors, or  for  workmen  in  the  various  building  trades, 
are  schoolhouses  built,  but  in  order  that  schooling  may 
he  free  to  all  children  and  youth. 

We  are  to  educate  for  the  future,  not  for  the  past. 
The  criteria  of  standards  as  to  the  nature  and  amount 
of  instruction  to  be  offered  are  to  be  ascertained  by  tak- 
ing a  careful  inventory  of  present  needs  and  of  the  trend 
of  development  of  our  social  and  industrial  life  as  affected 
by  education.  Such  a  survey  is  no  longer  the  work  of 
men  unacquainted  with  educational  movements  and  laws. 
The  expert  alone  is  capable  of  determining  such  matters. 
And  there  are  not  nearly  enough  of  these  to  meet  the 
demands  of  our  rapidly  growing  system.  The  weakest 
spot  in  this  system,  the  link  in  the  chain  by  whose 
weakness  its  inability  to  bear  the  required  strain  is  de- 
termined, is  this  lack  of  educational  experts  together 
with  society's  hesitancy  in  turning  over  to  them  the 
direction  of  the  work  of  our  schools. 

And  what  constitutes  an  educational  expert?  He  is 
one  who  has  received  a  broad  and  Uberal  education; 
who  has  studied  education  in  its  history  and  in  its 
principles;  who  has  a  clear  and  fairly  comprehensive 
knowledge  of  the  social  problems  affected  by  or  affecting 


RECAPITULATION  AND   DEFINITION  221 

the  education  of  the  schools;  who  knows  experimentally 
the  work  of  the  teacher  and  the  administrator;  who  is 
physically  and  morally  strong,  a  man  of  tact  and  sound 
judgment,  and  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  spirit  of 
democracy.  He  must  needs  be  an  optimist,  possessed 
of  a  keen  sense  of  humor,  a  lover  of  men.  Such  men, 
available  for  the  work,  are  few;  and  little  or  no  provision 
is  made  by  society  for  producing  such  men. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  however,  there  is  still  room  for  a 
splendid  optimism.  The  pubHc  mind  is  rapidly  becom- 
ing enlightened  as  to  the  needs  of  our  schools.  Educa- 
tion is  coming  more  and  more  to  be  viewed  as  a  sure 
and  successful  investment  both  for  the  social  group  and 
for  the  individual.  Not  a  year  passes  now  without 
some  notable  advance  movement  expressed  in  the  form 
of  legislation  in  from  one  to  a  dozen  or  more  States  of 
the  Union.  We  are  building  better  schools,  we  are  im- 
proving the  standards  of  work,  we  are  organizing  schools 
on  a  more  democratic  basis,  and  all  our  schools  are  be- 
coming more  free  and  open  to  the  young  of  all  classes. 

3.    Administration  of  Instruction  Defined 

We  need  now  to  consider  briefly  what  is  meant  by  the 
administration  of  instruction.  Various  efforts  have  been 
made  at  defining  the  term  "administration"  as  related 
to  education.  Still  the  application  of  it  seems  vague 
and  indistinct  in  the  minds  of  most  writers.  In  discuss- 
ing the  administration  of  education  in  this  general  and 
inclusive  way  we  have  been  trying  to  give  to  the  term  a 
clearer  and  more  comprehensive  significance.  Thus  ad- 
ministration is  established  in  law.  It  includes  all  direc- 
tive and  constructive  features  of  education.  Units  of 
control  are  its  fields  of  operation.  Boards,  superinten- 
dents, special  supervisors,  principals,  and  teachers  are  all 


222  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

parts  of  the  official  mechanism  of  administration.  There 
are  as  many  aspects  of  administration  as  there  are  units 
of  control,  down  to  the  individual  schoolroom  or  class- 
room presided  over  by  the  individual  teacher.  In  each 
of  the  larger  units  of  control  there  are  varying  aspects  of 
administration.  Thus  supervision  of  a  county  or  city  is 
an  aspect  of  administration. 

We  have  become  habituated  to  the  use  of  the  title  of 
superintendent  as  having  to  do  rather  definitely  with 
the  work  of  instruction.  At  the  same  time,  in  the  course 
of  evolution,  the  superintendent  in  a  city  has  come  to 
represent  much  more  than  instruction  and  the  things 
closely  related  thereto.  Only  in  recent  years  have  men 
come  to  understand  and  appreciate  this  difference  and  to 
divide  the  different  interests  which  the  one  superinten- 
dent has  been  compelled  to  assume  among  several  de- 
partmental heads,  all  a  part  of  administration  but  not 
of  the  direct  work  of  instruction.  And  now  it  is  pro- 
posed that  in  the  large  city  there  should  be  one  educa- 
tional expert,  as  general  superintendent,  over  all  these 
various  departments,  in  order  properly  to  correlate  them 
and  render  them  more  effective  in  accomplishing  that 
for  which  the  schools  exist. 

We  have  preferred  to  consider  administration  under 
the  two  general  headings:  (i)  Society  acting  through 
boards.  (2)  The  administration  of  instruction  through 
experts  trained  by  society  and  selected  by  boards  for 
their  particular  work  either  as  supervisors  or  teachers. 
And  what  are  the  administrative  features  to  be  discussed 
under  instruction?  First  of  all  is  supervision;  for  this 
is,  next  to  the  board,  the  leading  executive  factor  in 
administration.  As  we  have  seen,  the  superintendent  is 
often,  also,  close  to  society.  The  hne  of  demarcation 
and  the  intermediary  relationship   is  not  yet  clearly 


RECAPITULATION  AND   DEFINITION         223 

defined;  the  office  of  the  expert  is  not  yet  fully  under- 
stood by  the  people  at  large. 

Naturally,  then,  there  are  all  those  things  which  He 
close  to  society's  side  of  the  Une,  as  well  as  the  things 
pertaining  directly  to  instruction  that  have  come  to 
be  recognized  as  problems  of  supervision:  attendance, 
health;  the  care  of  defectives  and  delinquents;  the  cur- 
ricula of  the  schools;  the  selection  of  teachers  and  their 
training  in  service;  classification  and  promotion  of  pu- 
pils. There  is  the  teacher  in  the  classroom,  directing 
instruction,  organizing  materials,  moulding  habits  and 
conduct.  All  of  this  is  a  part  of  the  administration  of 
instruction. 

There  might  properly  be  included  under  this  discus- 
sion the  whole  field  of  class  management  and  method. 
But  this  phase  of  administration  has  already  been  thor- 
oughly and  ably  discussed  and  developed  by  numerous 
writers.  It  will  be  sufficient  for  our  purpose  here  to  call 
attention  to  the  more  general  problems  named  above. 

4.    Things  to  Be  Kept  in  Mind  in  the  Discussion  to 
Follow 

The  tendency  of  late  has  been  rather  to  an  over- 
emphasis of  administrative  problems.  Such  a  condition 
often  follows  a  general  awakening  to  the  importance  of 
something  that  has  previously  been  overlooked.  It  is 
to  be  hoped  that  out  of  this  wave  of  intense  interest  and 
the  consequent  discussion  may  come  a  clearer  under- 
standing of  the  relation  of  administrative  parts  to  each 
other  and  of  each  to  the  entire  problem  of  how  best 
and  most  successfully  to  educate  children  and  youth. 

We  need  especially  to  keep  in  mind  for  the  discus- 
sion that  is  to  follow  certain  principles  implied  in  what 
has  been  said  concerning  the  training  and  selection  of 


224  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

teachers.  Among  these  we  may  mention  first  of  all  the 
principle  that  the  instructional  force  must  have  at  hand 
and  be  familiar  with  the  necessary  materials  of  educa- 
tion. This  will  be  assured  if  society  makes  proper  pro- 
vision for  maintaining  schools,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
establishes  an  efficient  system  for  the  training  and  se- 
lection of  teachers  on  the  other. 

Next,  they  should  know,  as  far  as  possible,  the  nature 
as  well  as  the  order  and  manner  of  development  of  the 
physical,  mental,  and  moral  life  of  children  and  youth, 
and  be  able  to  adjust  the  materials  and  processes  of  edu- 
cation to  this  knowledge.  This  is  only  another  way  of 
saying  that  all  members  of  the  instructional  forces  should 
have  adequate  professional  training.  The  statement  of 
such  a  proposition  should  not  be  construed,  however,  to 
mean  that  all  should  possess  equally  such  knowledge. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  few  if  any  one  of  a  group  will  pos- 
sess it  all.  The  point  is  that  in  the  organization  of  any 
instructional  force  there  should  be  represented  all  es- 
sential phases  of  this  knowledge.  A  proper  adjustment 
in  the  division  of  labor  will  do  the  rest. 

The  members  of  the  instructional  corps  of  any  school 
need  to  understand  clearly  the  aims  of  education  from 
the  standpoint  both  of  the  individual  and  of  society. 
Unless  this  is  true  there  can  be  no  central  idea  about 
which  to  organize  materials  and  plans  of  action — a  very 
vital  condition  to  success  in  administering  instruction. 


CHAPTER  Xra 
SUPERVISION 

School  supervision  in  the  United  States  presents  two 
aspects  chiefly:  (i)  supervision  from  the  standpoint  of 
society;  (2)  from  the  standpoint  of  the  school.  Under 
the  second  of  these  are  to  be  included  the  regular  super- 
vision of  instruction,  variously  distributed  in  larger  sys- 
tems, and  special  supervision  (a)  of  subjects,  as  music, 
drawing,  manual  arts;  and  (b)  of  special  conditions  re- 
lated to  instruction,  as  attendance,  health,  and  sanitation. 

I.    The  Educational  Expert  of  the  System 

In  the  administration  of  instruction  society  gives  over 
to  specially  chosen  experts  the  direction  of  the  whole 
process  subject  to  the  approval  of  an  intermediary 
board.  This  stewardship  the  superintendent  of  a  sys- 
tem of  schools  primarily  stands  for.  He  may  share  it, 
by  delegation,  with  assistants,  special  supervisors,  and 
supervising  principals;  but  society  ultimately  holds  him 
responsible  for  results.  Through  this  stewardship  so- 
ciety provides  for  the  transfer  and  application  of  what 
it  has  done  directly  in  establishing  schools,  in  providing 
for  their  maintenance,  and  in  the  preparation  and  selec- 
tion of  teachers,  to  the  actual  work  for  which  the  entire 
organism  exists — the  instruction  of  children  and  youth 
and  of  all  who  should  share  in  the  instruction  of  the 
schools. 

225 


226  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 


2.    What  the  Position  Involves 

Hence  it  is  that  the  first  aspect  of  this  trust  placed  in 
the  ofl&ce  of  the  superintendent  is  a  looking  toward  so- 
ciety. It  involves,  first  of  all,  an  accounting  for  the 
uses  made  of  the  material  equipment  and  support  pro- 
vided. This  obligation  is  shared  with  the  board  which, 
indeed,  bears  the  greater  part  of  it.  In  the  second  place, 
it  requires  of  the  superintendent,  or  of  some  special 
administrative  officer,  that  the  material  conditions  be 
carefully  considered  with  reference  to  the  future  needs 
of  the  schools.  The  relative  adequacy  of  the  teaching 
force  must  also  be  reported,  together  with  a  statement 
of  any  needed  changes,  increase,  or  improvement  which 
should  be  provided  for.  The  materials  and  processes 
of  education  as  represented  in  the  programme  of  studies 
and  exercises  will  need  to  be  carefully  considered  and 
judged  as  to  their  adequacy  in  the  light  of  general  social 
and  industrial  needs  of  the  community.  The  board  will 
usually  look  to  the  superintendent  for  recommendations 
on  such  matters.  Those  things  also  which  pertain  to  the 
general  social  life  of  the  school,  as  well  as  the  relation 
of  the  school  to  the  social  Hfe  of  the  community,  will 
call  for  a  portion  of  the  attention  of  the  supervisory  ex- 
pert of  the  system.  It  is  the  superintendent  who  should 
know  what  to  emphasize  in  the  work  of  the  schools  as 
indicated  by  the  general  social  and  economic  conditions 
of  the  community.  If  we  add  to  this  the  very  impor- 
tant function  of  looking  after  the  physical  condition  and 
well-being  of  the  children  of  all  the  schools  of  a  given 
community  we  shall  see  that  the  field  for  supervision 
even  in  this  portion,  most  remote  of  all  from  the  actual 
work  of  instruction,  carries  with  it  great  responsibil- 


SUPERVISION  227 

ities  and  calls  for  men  correspondingly  capable  and 
efficient. 

It  is  the  larger  administrative  function  just  described 
which  calls  for  men  and  women  of  great  executive  abil- 
ity, especially  in  our  larger  cities;  but  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  school  and  the  purpose  for  which  it  is 
estabhshed  the  second  aspect  of  supervision  is  most  vi- 
tally important.  In  this  second  capacity,  first  of  all, 
the  superintendent  is  the  director  and  adviser  in  the 
work  of  instruction.  He  must  see  to  it  that  a  wise  use 
is  made  of  both  time  and  materials  toward  attaining 
the  end  sought.  He  must  guard  against  failures  on  the 
part  of  the  teachers  under  him.  To  do  this,  after  they 
are  once  selected  and  assigned,  he  must  carefully  coach 
the  weak  or  the  unskilled  that  may  happen  to  be  in  the 
group.  He  must  look  well  after  the  physical  health  of 
the  teachers,  their  mode  of  living,  their  recreations,  as 
far  as  he  may  do  so  without  seeming  to  meddle. 

He  it  is  who  will  strive  to  keep  the  teachers  under  his 
supervision  at  their  best.  This  he  may  do  (a)  by  sym- 
pathetic assistance  and  counsel;  (b)  by  constructive 
criticism;  {c)  by  bringing  to  their  attention  the  latest 
things  in  educational  progress  and  encouraging  them  to 
"blaze"  new  ways  into  the  untrodden  paths  of  educa- 
tional procedure  toward  which  we  are  all  looking,  moving ; 
in  other  words,  by  good,  all-around  leadership. 

Beyond  and  yet  closely  related  to  all  this  he  finds 
time  to  study  the  problems  connected  with  the  promo- 
tion and  classification  of  pupils.  He  looks  into  the 
problems  of  delinquents  and  defectives  and  seeks  ways 
and  means  by  which  these  may  be  better  cared  for.  He 
inquires  carefully  into  the  causes  and  the  cure  for  elim- 
ination and  retardation.  If  the  situation  lends  itself  in 
the  least  hopeful  manner  to  such  accomplishment,  he 


228  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

seeks  to  make  the  schools  real  vital  centres  of  commu- 
nity life  and  interest  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  about 
a  wide-spread  and  general  social  betterment. 

3.     Special  and  Grade  Supervision 

In  the  case  of  special  grade  supervision,  as  kindergar- 
ten, elementary,  grammar,  or  high  school,  the  assump- 
tion is  that  there  are  particular  features  of  the  work  at 
these  different  stages  of  the  educative  process  which 
call  for  special  study  and  for  peculiar  directive  ability 
in  supervision.  In  the  case  of  supervisors  of  special  sub- 
jects the  situation  is  quite  different.  This  type  of  super- 
vision has  evidently  grown  out  of  the  effort  to  introduce 
into  the  programme  of  studies  subjects  with  which  the 
regular  teachers  were  not  famihar.  Doctor  W.  A.  Jes- 
sup,  in  a  study  of  the  "Social  Factors  Affecting  Special 
Supervision  in  the  Public  Schools,"  has  brought  out  the 
fact  that  with  some  special  subjects,  such  as  music, 
drawing,  penmanship,  and  physical  education,  the  pre- 
vailing method  is  that  the  "new  material  is  taught  by 
specialists  at  regular  intervals,  followed  by  drill  on  the 
same  by  the  regular  teacher."  In  manual  training, 
domestic  science,  and  sewing.  Doctor  Jessup  found  the 
typical  method  to  be  "special  subjects  entirely  under  the 
charge  of  speciaUsts  and  all  lessons  given  by  specialists. 
The  slight  tendency  away  from  this  method  toward 
one  in  which  the  regular  teacher  has  a  share  of  responsi- 
bility is  confined  almost  entirely  to  the  large  cities."  ^ 

In  a  few  instances  only  do  elementary-school  systems 
provide  for  anything  more  than  such  general  supervi- 
sion of  music,  drawing,  penmanship,  and  physical  edu- 

*  "Social Factors  AfEecting  Special  Supervision,"  Doctor  W.  A.  Jessup, 
Teachers  College  Series,  Contributions  to  Education,  pp.  116-117,  New 
York,  191 1. 


SUPERVISION  229 

cation  outside  of  the  regular  teaching  force.  At  Gary, 
Ind.,  a  plan  is  in  operation  by  which  the  special  teacher 
instructs  all  classes  instead  of  supervising.  This  is 
accomplished  by  arranging  the  work  departmentally 
throughout.  On  the  other  hand,  large  high  schools 
much  more  commonly  provide  for  the  special  teaching 
of  all  these  lines,  usually  without  the  need  of  much 
supervision. 

4.    Supervision  of  Rural  and  Village  Schools 

The  types  of  supervision  as  determined  by  the  estab- 
lished units  of  control  and  the  kinds  of  schools  which 
have  resulted  have  already  been  named  in  discussing 
boards  of  education.  Taking  these  in  about  the  same 
order  as  previously  referred  to,  the  supervision  of  rural 
and  village  schools  would  first  be  considered.  Under 
present  conditions  we  have  found  this  to  be  very  in- 
adequate. Outside  of  New  England,  where  town  super- 
vision is  provided,  and  New  York,  where  the  State  is 
districted,  regardless  of  county  lines,  by  the  State  com- 
missioner of  education,  such  supervision  is  confined 
almost  entirely  to  county  superintendents.  Under  this 
latter  condition  the  supervision  of  instruction  in  rural 
schools  is  largely  indirect.  The  superintendent  or  his 
assistant  visits  the  schools  once  or  twice  a  year.  They 
observe  the  work  of  the  teacher,  the  equipment,  the 
general  conduct  of  the  school.  Usually  they  talk  to  the 
pupils,  and  they  offer  to  the  teachers  such  meagre  sug- 
gestions as  their  infrequent  visits  make  possible. 

In  many  States  these  superintendents  are  not  required 
to  represent  any  very  high  standards  professionally;  in 
other  words,  they  are  not  usually  experts  in  the  true 
sense.  Neither  their  time  nor  their  preparation  enable 
them  to  work  out  a  definite  educational  policy  such  as 


230  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

to  mark  strongly  the  character  of  instruction  given  in 
the  schools  under  them.  Yet  this  is  their  chief  business. 
Sometimes — in  most  instances,  in  fact — they  supplement 
their  visits  by  a  kind  of  indirect  supervision.  They  send 
out  circular  letters  to  the  teachers.  They  hold  district 
and  county  meetings  of  teachers  to  discuss  management 
and  methods  in  the  schools.  The  work  of  the  county 
institute  is  devoted  largely  to  similar  purposes. 

The  village  schools  frequently  fare  better.  These 
usually  employ  a  principal  teacher  who  does  some  super- 
visory work.  He  helps  teachers  to  prepare  daily  reci- 
tation and  study  programmes;  aids  them  in  getting  the 
necessary  materials;  supervises  promotions  and  classi- 
fication; aids  in  maintaining  good  order  and  right  con- 
duct. Because  he  must  usually  teach  during  the  school 
sessions,  he  has  to  do  most  of  this  indirectly  or  before 
and  after  school.  Ordinarily  such  a  principal  is  a  man 
or  a  woman  of  little  experience,  a  graduate  of  a  normal 
school  with  two  years  of  training  to  his  credit  beyond 
the  high  school,  or  a  green  college  graduate  or  student 
of  two  or  three  years'  standing,  with  enough  to  do  to 
manage  his  own  classes  without  bothering  much  con- 
cerning his  assistant  teachers. 

5.    County  Boards  and  Better  Teachers  the  Chief 
Needs 

It  is  evident  enough  that  a  county  board,  empowered 
to  employ  a  sufficient  number  of  supervisors  to  take 
good  care  of  this  whole  matter  of  instruction  in  these 
two  types  of  schools  would  greatly  improve  conditions. 
Furthermore,  if  we  could  once  establish  higher  standards 
of  preparation  of  teachers  for  all  our  schools,  as  well  as 
of  supervision  of  instruction,  much  of  the  difficulty 
would  disappear.    The  schools  of  Prussia,  we  are  told, 


SUPERVISION  231 

are  able  to  get  along  with  a  comparatively  small  amount 
of  supervision.  This  is  due  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  none 
but  reasonably  efficient  teachers  are  permitted  in  the 
schools.  The  training  of  these  is  such  that,  with  a  pro- 
gramme of  studies  furnished  by  the  State,  they  are  able 
to  carry  the  work  of  instruction  along  with  a  mini- 
mum of  supervision.  Inspection,  chiefly,  is  all  that  the 
schools  require.  Before  we  carry  the  increase  in  the 
supervisory  forces  too  far  it  might  be  well  for  us  to  get 
right  generally  on  the  more  fundamental  proposition — 
the  properly  prepared  teacher. 

6.     Supervision  of  Small  Cities 

The  small  city  with  a  population  ranging  from  five 
thousand  to  one  hundred  thousand  may  readily  consti- 
tute a  second  type.  In  such  cities,  as  a  rule,  we  find  all 
the  executive  duties  under  the  board  of  education,  ex- 
cept such  as  can  be  handled  readily  and  efficiently  by 
committees  of  the  board,  devolving  upon  the  one  man 
as  head  of  the  school  system.  Such  a  position  calls  for 
a  man  of  great  versatility.  He  needs  not  only  to  know 
the  principles  and  laws  of  education,  but  also  the  best 
business  methods  as  they  pertain  to  the  management  of 
schools. 

We  are  only  just  awakening  to  the  fact  that  this  po- 
sition calls  for  a  man  trained  for  his  job.  The  rapid 
growth  of  urban  populations  makes  the  demand  for  new 
men  in  this  field  quite  worthy  of  consideration  on  the 
part  of  those  who  are  preparing  for  administrative  work 
in  education.  There  are  now  in  the  United  States  (cen- 
sus of  191  o)  1,191  cities  of  the  class  referred  to.  These 
are  divided  as  follows  as  to  size:  5,000  to  10,000,  632 
cities;  10,000  to  25,000,  374  cities;  25,000  to  100,000, 
185  cities.     This  offers  a  suggestive  gradation  for  pro- 


232  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

motions  where  a  superintendent  is  seeking  a  larger  field. 
Besides  these  there  are  50  cities  of  ioo,ocx)  or  over  to 
which  one  may  also  ultimately  aspire.  This  is  saying 
nothing  of  the  numerous  subordinate  offices,  as  assis- 
tant superintendents  and  ward  principals,  which  are 
needed  in  the  larger  cities.  These  places,  also,  are  in 
line  of  promotion  for  those  who  are  qualified. 

When  we  consider  the  importance  of  these  positions 
in  their  relationship  to  the  proper  administration  of  in- 
struction, and  also  the  number  of  people  needed,  it  seems 
high  time  that  States  were  beginning  to  make  some  ade- 
quate provision  for  the  special  preparation  of  this  class 
of  educational  experts.  Thus  far,  in  the  main,  we  have 
been  accustomed  to  let  these  superintendents  "come 
up"  through  varied  experiences,  well  equipped  in  a  prac- 
tical way,  with  a  rich  fund  of  empirical  knowledge. 
They  have  learned  by  imitating  or  by  ready  invention 
where  a  new  situation  has  been  presented.  They  have 
come  by  a  devious  course  to  a  fair  success,  but  the  way 
they  came  they  cannot  chart.  They  can  tell  to  others 
how  a  thing  is  done,  but,  as  a  rule,  they  know  not  the 
principles  involved  nor  yet  how  to  apply  principles  in 
solving  new  problems  of  administration.  As  a  class  they 
are  rapidly  passing. 

A  few  institutions,  like  Teachers  College  at  Columbia 
University,  or  Harvard  in  its  work  with  the  schoolmen 
about  Cambridge  and  Boston,  have  taken  up  the  prob- 
lem of  the  training  of  experts  for  the  work  of  supervi- 
sion. The  time  is  not  far  distant,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  when 
this  will  be  done  extensively  by  our  State  institutions. 
Educational  Uterature  dealing  with  the  problems  pecu- 
liar to  the  superintendent's  work  is  rapidly  increasing. 
From  the  standpoint  of  permanency  and  a  fair  compen- 
sation the  conditions  were  never  so  favorable  as  now. 


SUPERVISION  23a 

Some  real  and  worthy  careers  are  opening  for  strong, 
well-trained  men.  At  each  succeeding  call  that  comes 
for  a  well-qualified  man  to  fill  one  of  these  places  there 
is  demonstrated,  over  and  over,  the  shortage  of  men  of 
the  right  kind — men  that  are  being  sought. 

Experience,  as  a  part  of  one's  equipment  for  the  work 
of  supervision,  is  a  necessary  factor.  Knowledge  of  the 
various  standards,  tests,  and  measures  of  eflSciency  in 
school  work  and  of  their  application  is  also  very  essen- 
tial. It  would  be  a  great  step  forward  for  our  universi- 
ties to  offer  scholarships,  or  fellowships  where  possible, 
for  men  who  have  had  good  initial  training  and  suflS- 
cient  experience  to  demonstrate  unquestioned  ability  to 
prepare  more  fully  for  such  work.  If  practicable  they 
should  serve  a  brief  probationary  term,  as  a  part  of  this 
training,  under  capable  expert  direction.  A  still  better 
arrangement  would  be  a  plan  for  directing  their  studies 
while  they  are  holding  actual  positions. 

As  stated  above,  the  superintendent  of  a  small  city 
system  is  apt  to  be  the  educational  factotum  of  the 
board.  But  even  here  certain  relief  may  be  had  through 
committees  and  through  combinations  of  duties  with 
such  assistants  as  the  office  may  afford.  The  secretary 
of  the  board  may  also  be  the  attendance  officer,  or  pur- 
chasing agent,  or  all  three.  A  regular  practising  physi- 
cian may  take  care  of  the  medical  inspection  and  health 
supervision,  especially  if  there  be  a  visiting  nurse  or  two. 
By  such  means  the  superintendent  may  be  free  to  de- 
vote more  time  to  the  direct  work  of  instruction  and  the 
problems  more  immediately  attendant  thereto.  He  may 
still  have  to  conduct  his  own  psychological  clinic  unless 
he  can  find  in  some  principal  or  high-school  teacher  one 
qualified  to  do  this  at  a  slight  additional  compensation 
and  with  a  programme  of  class  work  or  other  duties  ad- 


234  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

justed  so  as  to  give  the  required  time  for  the  work.  Some 
local  or  otherwise  available  and  capable  architect  may 
be  retained,  as  needed,  to  advise  with  superintendent 
and  board  in  regard  to  new  buildings  and  all  matters 
pertaining  to  the  development  of  the  physical  equipment 
of  the  schools. 

The  point  to  the  whole  matter  is  that  the  all-important 
thing  is  the  instructional  work;  and  a  city  does  not  need 
to  be  very  large  to  make  of  its  proper  supervision  a  man's 
task.  There  is  no  weaker  point,  to-day,  in  our  scheme 
of  administration,  than  that  caused  by  this  lack  of  men 
properly  trained,  both  in  scholarship  and  professionally, 
for  the  work  of  supervision. 

7.    Supervision  of  Large-City  Systems 

The  peculiarity  in  the  problem  of  supervision  of  in- 
struction which  a  large  city  presents  is  chiefly  one  of 
distribution  of  function.  Here  all  the  accessory  prob- 
lems are  taken  care  of  by  special  departments.  Two  of 
these,  attendance  and  physical  education  and  health, 
will  be  discussed  in  separate  chapters.  But  the  super- 
vision of  the  work  of  teaching  alone  calls  for  an  or- 
ganization quite  complex  in  itself.  First  there  is  the 
question  of  assistants  directly  under  the  general  super- 
intendent. Shall  these  be  on  the  basis  of  a  horizontal 
division,  by  grades;  or  on  a  vertical  division,  by  dis- 
tricts; or  a  division  by  subjects  for  consideration,  as 
music,  drawing,  manual  training,  attendance,  physical 
training,  and  health?  In  either  case  what  shall  be  their 
duties,  what  their  authority?  The  first  two  of  these 
methods  of  distribution  are  in  common  use,  the  third 
but  slightly  and  in  an  embryonic  way  as  yet.  In  this 
last  form  there  is  involved  the  idea  of  efficient  supervision 
of  the  teaching  work  under  the  supervising  principals, 


SUPERVISION  235 

who  would  report  directly  to  the  superintendent  or  to 
an  office  assistant.  Such  supervisors  would  make  up  the 
advisory  board  of  the  general  superintendent  as  is 
customary  where  the  other  plans  of  distribution  are  in 
use.  Each  in  his  own  department  would  refer  all  special 
cases  to  the  superintendent,  who  would  again  refer  to 
his  advisory  board,  for  more  thorough  consideration,  all 
the  more  difficult  and  complex  questions  which  might 
arise.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  three  methods  of  di- 
vision are  more  or  less  combined  in  a  number  of  our 
larger  cities. 

8.    Purposes  and  Aims  of  Supervising  Agencies 

Whatever  the  plan  adopted,  the  aim  is  to  cause  the 
supervising  agencies  of  the  school  to  help  as  much  as 
possible  in  making  the  instructional  work  of  the  schools 
strong  and  effective.  With  this  purpose  in  view,  and 
with  the  schools  of  a  city  organized  into  rather  large 
units,  as  is  generally  the  case,  it  would  seem  that  the 
supervising  principal  should  be  the  most  dependable 
factor.  Whatever  else  may  be  done  from  the  office  of 
the  superintendent  should  be  to  help  and  to  stimulate 
the  work  of  the  principal  and  to  take  care  of  such 
special  features  of  instruction  as  may  call  for  a  more 
definitely  expert  treatment. 

In  order  to  be  able  to  furnish  the  necessary  stimulus 
the  special  sup>ervisor  should  study  carefully  the  results 
attained  by  a  principal  in  a  given  school  situation. 
These  results,  compared  with  those  attained  by  other 
principals,  should  point  to  relative  excellence  of  method 
and  spirit  which  these  principals  maintain.  The  entire 
system  should  be  so  organized  and  conducted  as  to  ad- 
mit of  the  highest  possible  degree  of  freedom  and  initia- 
tive on  the  part  of  teacher,  principal,  supervisor  of  dis- 


236  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

trict,  grade,  or  subject.  Each  in  his  place  should  be 
measured  by  the  results  attained  as  well  as  by  a  com- 
parison of  method  and  management. 

Stimuli  from  the  supervisor  or  principal  as  applied  to 
the  teacher  at  work  may  take  on  several  diflferent  forms. 
The  stimulus  to-day  may  come  through  directing  the 
teacher  to  some  new  and  helpful  materials  that  apply 
directly  to  the  problem  in  hand.  To-morrow  may  come 
the  need  of  criticism — a  fine  discernment  that  shall  see 
both  the  bad  and  the  good  in  a  piece  of  work,  that  shall 
mean  hope  rather  than  fear,  be  constructive  rather  than 
destructive.  Another  day  an  illustration  may  be  sug- 
gested in  the  work  of  another  teacher  dealing  with  a 
similar  problem.  Or  courage,  hope,  persistence  may 
come  through  some  little  special  notice  of  a  piece  of 
work,  not  perfect,  yet  full  of  promise. 

Such  daily  contact,  sympathetic,  full  of  suggestions, 
quick  to  appreciate,  is  the  great  factor  in  this  work  with 
the  real  workers — the  teachers  with  their  classes.  The 
same  general  principles  apply  to  all  supervisors  whether 
of  grades,  special  subjects,  or  all  the  schools  of  a  given 
district.  First,  and  most  emphatically,  they  apply  to 
supervising  principals;  next,  in  a  more  general  way,  to 
assistant,  district,  or  special  supervisor;  lastly,  to  the 
general  superintendent,  before  whom,  on  some  occasion, 
each  and  every  one  of  those  of  whose  work  he  is  the 
final  co-ordinator  must  pass  in  review. 

The  entire  supervising  force  should  be  on  the  look- 
out for  that  work  which  is  meritorious  and  manage  to 
discover  for  it  some  reward.  The  work  of  the  teacher 
is  hard  enough  at  best.  It  will  lighten  the  burden  if 
what  is  really  well  done  is  always  recognized  in  some 
way,  and  it  will  tend  materially  to  increase  the  number 
of  good,  competent  teachers.     The  number  of  super- 


SUPERVISION  237 

visors  who  have  learned  the  art  of  criticism  to  that 
degree  necessary  in  making  such  discriminations  in  the 
work  of  teachers  is  surprisingly  few.  We  have  said  that 
criticism,  for  instance,  should  be  constructive  rather 
than  destructive.  In  this  respect  we  may  find  in  our 
schools  at  least  four  t3^es  of  supervisors.  First  there 
is  the  supervisor  who  carefully,  kindly  points  out 
defects  and  suggests  the  remedies  even  to  the  extent 
of  illustrating  his  points  if  necessary.  Next  there  is  the 
one  who  commends  but  at  the  same  time  suggests  an 
entirely  different  treatment,  the  man  of  rare  construc- 
tive ability  in  the  field  of  instruction.  Both  these 
types  of  criticism  are  constructive,  stimulating,  whole- 
some. Then  there  is  a  third  type,  the  faultfinder,  the 
one  who  tears  down  without  offering  anything  to  replace 
what  he  has  utterly  demolished.  Such  criticism  is 
purely  destructive.  And  a  fourth  class  is  no  better  al- 
though a  little  more  pleasant  to  take;  it  is  that  of  the 
supervisor  who  is  always  lauding,  indiscriminately,  every- 
thing he  sees.  His  words  are  but  fulsome  flattery  and, 
in  the  end,  are  likely  to  prove  destructive  of  both  cour- 
age and  effort. 

9.     The  Superintendent  and  the  Training  of  Teachers  in 

Service 

The  fine  art  of  all  arts  of  the  superintendent  and  his 
assistants  is  the  art  of  training  teachers.  No  small  part 
of  the  burden  of  school  management  is  that  of  improv- 
ing the  teachers  in  service — of  so  directing  their  activi- 
ties in  school  and  at  sundry  other  times  as  to  result  in 
a  continuous  growth  of  each  individual.  This  is  a  part 
of  the  business  of  the  leading  spirit  in  any  and  all  of 
the  types  or  units  of  supervision  we  have  here  discussed. 
There  is  growing  a  feeling  of  restlessness  among  the 


238  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

great  body  of  teachers  as  to  the  real  value  of  much 
,  that  is  demanded  in  the  name  of  "professional  training." 
Again  and  again  teachers  are  called  from  their  work 
and  the  schools  closed  in  order  that  instruction  of  pupils 
may  give  place  to  the  process  of  "inspiring"  and  instruct- 
ing teachers.  A  programme  is  arranged,  often  without 
much  forethought  or  continuity  of  purpose,  and  a  meet- 
ing is  announced  for  a  day,  two  days — perhaps  a  whole 
week.  And  in  a  vast  majority  of  cases  much  of  that  to 
which  all  are  commanded  or  exhorted  to  give  heed  is 
entirely  irrelevant  to  the  work  or  growth  of  those  for 
whose  improvement  it  is  offered. 

In  the  epoch  of  the  "eagle-screaming"  celebration  of 
Independence  Day,  or  the  torchlight  parade  as  a  win- 
ner of  votes,  there  may  have  been  a  place  for  these 
teachers'  gatherings  where  stock  generahties  and  enter- 
taining speeches  made  up  the  entire  programme.  But 
in  this  day  of  seeking  for  new  truth,  of  discovering  the 
principles  on  which  processes  are  to  be  based,  it  is  time 
to  organize  these  efforts  for  professional  advancement 
about  something  more  definite,  more  tangible.  Too 
much  time  is  involved  of  both  pupils  and  teachers,  too 
much  of  the  teachers'  hard-earned  funds,  to  warrant 
such  inadequate  if  not  wholly  useless  procedure.  The 
superintendent  of  any  unit — county,  village,  or  city — 
who  is  not  prepared  to  lead  teachers  under  his  charge 
to  something  more  definitely  related  to  the  problems 
everywhere  calling  for  solution  in  the  field  of  education, 
should  immediately  seek  to  discover  what  is  good  form 
in  writing  a  humble  resignation. 


SUPERVISION  239 

10.    Function  of  Supervisors  in  the  Selection  of 
Teachers 

Not  only  must  the  superintendent  and  his  aids  look 
after  the  training  of  teachers  in  service  but  also  the  re- 
plenishing of  the  ranks  from  year  to  year  to  make  up 
for  growth  and  loss.  Many  a  superintendent's  plans 
have  been  defeated  and  his  efforts  nullified  by  failure  to 
secure  the  right  kind  of  teachers  for  the  annual  vacan- 
cies. Generally  speaking,  boards  of  education  leave  the 
selection  and  nomination  of  teachers  in  the  hands  of  the 
superintendent  and  principals.  The  exceptional  cases, 
where  "pull"  is  still  made  the  basis  of  selections  at  times, 
are  usually  to  be  found  in  those  cities  where  boards  are 
appointive  and  so  subordinated  to  the  political  regime 
of  municipal  governments. 

The  recommendations  of  the  superintendent  in  regard 
to  reappointments  as  well  as  in  naming  new  teachers 
call  for  very  full  and  careful  consideration.  There  is 
involved  not  only  a  suitable  salary  schedule  but  also  the 
whole  matter  of  ranking  and  efficiency  of  teachers  as  a 
basis  for  determining  the  schedule  and  each  teacher's 
right  to  promotion.  Nothing  can  prove  more  fatal  to 
any  system  than  the  establishment  of  a  scale  of  salaries 
which  increases  on  the  basis  of  time  of  service  solely 
without  any  check  upon  growth  and  efficiency  on  the 
part  of  each  member  of  the  teaching  force.  There  are 
numerous  ways  of  determining  these  matters.  It  is  not 
in  the  province  of  this  treatment  of  administration  to 
undertake  to  give  a  model  for  a  field  so  large  and  varied. 
Each  system  should  work  out  its  own  scheme,  in  the 
light  of  local  conditions,  but  with  insistence  upon  some 
clear  evidence  of  growth  and  at  least  sustained  efl&ciency 
as  a  basis  for  every  advance. 


240  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

There  is  involved,  incidentally,  the  need  of  definite 
information  for  the  board  as  to  the  range  of  salaries 
paid  in  other  cities  where  similar  social  and  economic 
conditions  prevail.  Maximum,  minimum,  and  median 
standards  should  be  available,  not  only  from  the  cities 
of  the  country  at  large,  but  also  from  a  carefully  se- 
lected group  of  cities  similarly  conditioned  as  to  size, 
cost  of  living,  and  such  other  factors  as  would  afiFect  the 
status  of  teaching  in  comparison  with  the  local  schools. 

One  thing  that  has  been  said  before  will  bear  repeat- 
ing here:  the  teachers  of  any  local  system  would  better 
be  selected  from  the  State  or  country  at  large.  Other 
things  equal,  such  a  plan  will  bring  better  results  as  to 
the  vital  quality  of  the  teaching  corps.  The  local  train- 
ing-school may  have  been  and  may  still  be  expedient  as 
a  temporary  means  of  securing  a  suflScient  number  of 
well-trained  teachers.  No  well-informed  superintendent 
would  be  likely  to  recommend  the  establishment  of  such 
an  institution  on  any  other  ground. 

II.     Things  Superintendents  Should  Know 

The  superintendent,  to  be  successful,  will  need  to 
have  clearly  defined  views  and  a  working  policy  con- 
cerning such  problems  as  attendance;  health;  physical 
education;  classification  and  promotion  of  pupils  and 
teachers;  the  care  of  defective  children;  the  causes  and 
prevention  of  retardation  and  elimination;  vocational 
guidance  and  selection;  and  trade,  night,  and  other 
forms  of  continuation  schools. 

The  wise  superintendent  wiU  keep  in  touch  with  the 
financial  situation  and  the  limitations  his  board  is 
working  under  in  this  respect.  In  all  his  plans  for  en- 
largement and  innovations  he  will  carefully  consult  these 
interests  in  the  light  of  what  he  feels  will  be  the  truest 


SUPERVISION  241 

economy  in  the  long  run.  Although  the  supervising 
architect  may  be  charged  with  preparing  the  plans  for 
all  new  buildings  or  additions  to  old  ones,  a  right  condi- 
tion of  things  will  leave  the  final  approval,  from  the 
standpoint  of  adaptability,  to  the  superintendent  and 
his  aids.  Nothing  is  more  trying  to  a  conscientious  su- 
perintendent than  to  find  plans  for  buildings  adopted  in 
which  important  features,  educationally,  have  been  over- 
looked or  omitted.  For  this  reason  the  general  super- 
intendent should  always  have  a  check  on  the  building 
plans  for  the  schools. 

Similar  conditions  make  it  desirable  that  all  the  spe- 
cial departments  that  in  any  way  concern  the  instruc- 
tional work  of  the  schools  should  be  subject  to  review 
by  the  central  supervising  office.  We  have  noted  a  ten- 
dency in  some  cities  to  place  the  supervision  of  health 
and  also  of  playgrounds  under  departments  of  the  munic- 
ipal government  instead  of  under  the  board  of  educa- 
tion. Both  these  special  fields  bear  a  direct  and  vital 
relationship  to  the  work  of  the  schools  and  should  there- 
fore be  under  the  direction  of  school  authorities  and 
subject  to  recommendations  and  approval  by  the  super- 
intendent of  instruction. 

12.    State  Supervision 

There  remain  for  our  consideration  here  such  forms  of 
supervision  as  are  provided  under  larger  units  of  con- 
trol. That  for  counties  has  already  been  discussed  as  a 
part  of  a  plan  for  county  organization  and  a  county 
board.  Next  above  that  comes  State  supervision.  It 
was  probably  a  wise  foresight  on  the  part  of  those  who 
framed  laws  establishing  this  office  that,  in  most  in- 
stances, little  real  authority  was  vested  in  the  office. 
Under  our  present  prevailing  condition  of  political  con- 


242  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

trol  a  partisan  official  possessed  of  great  power  in  such 
an  office  might  easily  play  havoc  with  State  systems  of 
education. 

We  have  already  discussed  this  anomalous  situation 
as  it  exists  in  many  States  under  the  chapter  on  boards 
of  education.  Even  with  a  more  ideal  condition  as  to 
the  method  of  choosing  such  an  official,  if  we  adhere  to 
the  principles  heretofore  laid  down,  the  State  superin- 
tendent's office  should  have  little  or  nothing  to  do,  in  a 
direct  way,  with  the  instructional  work  of  the  schools. 
But  this  is  not  saying  that  this  office  may  not  be  a  very 
useful  and  important  one  in  its  relation  to  instruction 
in  a  democratic  scheme  of  education.  Such  an  official, 
acting  as  the  executive  of  a  State  board  with  depart- 
mental assistants  under  him,  becomes  a  very  necessary 
and  desirable  factor  in  the  educational  organism. 

First  of  all  there  are  the  educational  laws  of  the  State 
to  be  enforced.  This  the  State  superintendent,  in  co- 
operation with  county  and  district  superintendents  and 
boards,  is,  or  should  be,  definitely  charged  with  and 
duly  empowered  to  execute.  Incidental  to  this  execu- 
tive relation  will  appear  also  the  obligation  to  point  out 
to  the  State  board,  as  a  basis  for  legislative  recommenda- 
tion, wherein,  if  at  all,  the  laws  are  defective  or  inade- 
quate. This  legal  aspect  of  the  office  no  doubt  repre- 
sents the  most  vital  service  which  the  superintendent 
can  render.  Such  an  official,  backed  by  a  board  of 
representative  men,  should  be  able  to  develop  the  legal 
basis  for  a  strong  State  organization  capable  of  meeting 
all  demands  in  the  field  of  public  education. 

Then  there  is  the  certification  of  teachers.  Undoubt- 
edly, this  whole  matter  should  be  subject  to  the  control 
and  careful  supervision  of  the  State  executive,  again  in 
co-operation  with  county  and  city  authorities.     It  is 


SUPERVISION  243 

believed  by  some,  also,  that  such  a  department  should 
keep  a  careful  record  of  the  teaching  staff  of  the  State 
and  thus  be  able  to  give  reliable  information  to  school 
authorities  concerning  the  professional  records  and  per- 
sonal characters  of  teachers.  This  would  save  many- 
schools  from  serious  mistakes  and  would  also  be  a  pro- 
tection to  the  deserving  teacher  in  need  of  a  position. 
Such  a  record  seems  to  belong  naturally  with  some  cen- 
tral ofl&ce  having  to  do  with  the  certification  of  teachers. 

All  reports  necessary  to  show  the  educational  condi- 
tion and  needs  of  the  State  the  superintendent  should 
have  authority  to  collect,  tabulate,  and  publish  for  the 
information  of  legislators,  boards  of  education,  the  public 
press,  and  all  those  engaged  in  educational  work.  Such 
a  system  of  reports,  well  chosen  and  wisely  interpreted, 
can  be  made  to  touch  every  vital  problem  of  education 
in  a  State.  It  can  do  much  to  eliminate  incompetent 
officers  by  insistent  demand  for  the  information  they 
should  give,  but  in  many  cases  may  be  foimd  incapable 
of  reporting.  It  is  capable  of  becoming  a  strong  stimu- 
lus to  the  entire  system  of  schools.  The  trouble  with 
most  of  these  offices  now  is  that  in  the  matter  of  rep>orts 
they  are  ruled  solely  by  what  is  traditional  or  what 
seems  to  be  politic. 

Through  such  a  central  office  of  the  State  should  be 
conducted  an  inspection  of  all  school  buildings  and  prop- 
erties used  in  education  of  whatever  grade  with  refer- 
ence to  their  sanitary  condition,  their  safety,  and  their 
adequacy  for  the  work  that  is  required  to  be  done. 
This  might  be  done  directly  or  through  co-operation 
with  county  and  city  officials,  but  should  always  be 
subject  to  strict  review  by  the  State  department. 

In  cases  where  the  State  offers  subsidies  to  schools 
the  office  of  the  superintendent  should  determine  whether 


244  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

or  not  the  conditions  of  granting  such  subsidies  are  being 
fulfilled.  But  the  granting  of  such  subsidies  should 
never  be  conditioned  in  such  a  way  as  seriously  to  cur- 
tail the  freedom  and  initiative  of  local  authorities  as 
regards  the  instructional  work  of  the  schools. 

Another  important  service  which  the  ofl&ce  of  the 
State  educational  executive  may  render  is  in  the  super- 
vision of  teachers'  institutes  and  other  general  teachers' 
organizations.  Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the 
waste  which  often  characterizes  these  really  desirable 
factors  in  educational  progress.  There  are  a  few  States 
where  provision  has  already  been  made  for  a  stronger 
directive  control.  With  a  properly  constituted  State 
board  and  executive,  under  carefully  defined  powers  and 
duties,  these  gatherings,  often  so  weak  and  meaningless, 
might  become  powerful  forces  for  professional  uplift  and 
the  betterment  of  our  schools.  It  need  not  be  said,  of 
course,  that  all  this  should  be  done  in  a  co-operative 
spirit,  with  local,  county,  city,  and  State  forces  working 
together  to  the  same  end.  The  real  point  to  the  matter 
is  the  need  of  more  definite  central  supervision  with 
designated  authority. 

With  such  an  array  as  the  above  of  activities  for  a 
State  superintendent,  it  is  evident  enough  that  there  is 
ample  room  for  such  an  ofl&cial,  with  a  strong  staff,  to 
aid  in  co-ordinating,  stimulating,  and  improving  without 
need  of  infringement  upon  any  essential  feature  of  local 
control,  initiative  or  participation.  Yet  there  is  that  in 
our  political  atmosphere  which  seems  to  engender  in  men 
who  win  success  through  the  popular  vote  a  thirst  for 
increase  of  power  and  control.  Always  there  appears  to 
go  with  such  an  office  a  restlessness,  an  itching  for  what- 
ever lies  adjacent  in  a  common  field  of  service,  an  ambi- 
tion for  aggrandizement  of  office  through  numbers  and 


SUPERVISION  245 

an  increased  annual  budget.  Such  a  spirit  is  not  in 
accord  with  the  spirit  of  democracy  in  education.  It  is 
the  selfsame  spirit  that  has  built  and  fostered  the  evils 
of  political  patronage  and  political  "spoils."  From  all 
such  may  our  free  public  schools  be  delivered ! 

With  such  opportunities  as  those  enumerated  above 
for  influencing  the  schools,  it  is  evident  that  the  indirect 
effect  of  the  office  of  State  superintendent  would  make 
possible  a  much  more  eflficient  grade  of  instruction. 
Thus,  while  communities  would  be  left  with  a  maximum 
of  freedom,  the  ability  of  the  State's  official  to  aid  in  the 
general  advancement  of  schools  of  all  classes  would  be 
much  greater  than  that  which  generally  prevails  at  the 
present  time. 

13.     Supervision  of  Normal  Schools  Needed 

Where  a  State  has  a  number  of  normal  schools  some 
provision  should  be  made  for  a  central  supervision  of 
them.  If  they  are  under  a  unified  State  board  then  the 
expert  executive  staff  should  provide  for  this.  The  real 
need  of  such  supervision  is  more  in  matters  of  instruc- 
tion than  anything  else  outside  of  what  the  business 
management  of  the  board  could  take  care  of.  It  could 
not  be  expected  that  a  board  of  lay  members  should 
deal  with  instructional  work.  The  need  would  be, 
chiefly,  for  a  standardizing  of  the  work  which  all  would 
undoubtedly  do  in  common.  There  would  also  be  need 
of  some  direction  in  differentiating  individual  schools 
with  reference  to  certain  Unes  of  work  so  as  to  make  an 
equitable  distribution  of  such  special  features  without 
omitting  any  essential  thing.  There  are  several  of  these 
special  lines  of  work  which  all  may  not  need  to  under- 
take in  order  to  meet  the  demands.  Certainly  all  should 
not  undertake  them  because  some  one  school  does. 


246  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

It  is  true  that  these  matters  might  be  managed 
through  co-operation,  but  some  one  should  at  least  be 
charged  with  the  duty  of  bringing  it  about.  If  special 
supervision  of  this  kind  were  established,  including  su- 
pervision of  teachers'  courses  given  in  high  schools,  it 
would  help  materially  in  many  of  the  States  toward 
bringing  about  the  establishment  of  trustworthy  stand- 
ards which  all  interested  persons  or  boards  might  have 
access  to. 

14.    Supervision  of  Instruction  in  a  University 

It  may  sound  a  little  strange  for  one  to  refer  to  such 
a  thing  as  the  supervision  of  instruction  in  a  university. 
Yet  why  should  it?  A  considerable  proportion  of  the 
instructional  work  done  in  our  modern  American  univer- 
sities, as  every  one  knows,  is  done  by  assistants,  or  fel- 
lows, or  instructors,  most  of  whom  know  nothing  about 
teaching  except  by  that  sort  of  empiricism  which  one 
has  by  remembering  how  he  was  taught.  There  has 
been  a  great  change  in  this  regard  with  the  rapid  growth 
of  our  great  State  institutions  and  along  with  that  the 
growth  in  graduate  work.  If  it  is  right  and  desirable 
that  novices  in  the  work  of  teaching  should  be  super- 
vised anywhere  above  the  elementary  grades  it  is  cer- 
tainly in  order  here. 

The  old  plea  for  academic  freedom  can  hardly  be  urged 
with  any  justness  against  such  supervision.  States  have 
organized  these  institutions  in  order  to  give  the  very 
best  possible  training  to  young  men  and  women.  As  a 
matter  of  sound  economy,  the  organization  of  the  work 
should  be  the  best  possible  as  calculated  to  bring  to  the 
State  the  largest  returns  both  in  quality  of  training  and 
the  number  successfully  cared  for.  Besides,  as  we  have 
just  shown,  there  are  changed  conditions  in  our  institu- 


SUPERVISION  247 

tions  which  call  for  a  modified  form  of  administration  in 
this  particular.  And  it  is  probably  cheaper  and  better 
for  the  State  to  provide  for  the  supervision  rather  than 
to  pay  the  greater  price  for  men  of  wider  experience, 
even  if  enough  men  were  to  be  had,  which  seems  not  to 
be  the  case  at  present. 

Such  supervision  might  readily  be  provided  by  depart- 
ments, subject  to  advisement  from  the  office  of  each 
dean  or  director  of  a  college  or  school  in  the  university. 
If  rightly  entered  into  it  would  greatly  improve  the  in- 
struction of  lower  classes,  would  tend  to  reduce  the 
"mortality"  among  freshmen,  and  would  undoubtedly 
save  many  worthy  young  instructors  from  failure  and 
premature  retirement  from  the  work  of  teaching.  Here, 
again,  the  force  of  an  outworn  tradition  relentlessly  grips 
the  situation  and  prevents  what  might  easily  mark  a 
great  forward  movement  in  college  and  imiversity  ad- 
ministration. 

15.    Inter-Institutional  Supervision 

We  come  finally  to  a  certain  phase  of  supervision 
which  includes  something  of  all  these  other  types.  There 
are  certain  inter-relationships  among  the  different  edu- 
cational institutions  when  considered  as  to  grade.  As 
the  individual  moves  forward  from  elementary  to  inter- 
mediate school,  from  intermediate  to  high  school,  and 
from  high  school  to  college  or  university,  there  are  artic- 
ulations to  be  looked  after  and  readjustments  to  be  made. 
These  steps  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  come  about  with 
the  least  possible  waste  in  expense,  or  time,  or  spirit. 

The  method  of  fixing  arbitrary  schedules  or  pro- 
grammes of  study  by  State  departments  or  by  the  insti- 
tution higher  up  has  been  proven  unsatisfactory  and  in- 
adequate.    For  every  one  knows  that  programmes  of 


248  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

study  are  live  and  sensitive  things — organisms  that  are 
changing,  growing  with  every  passing  year.  Hence  the 
fixing  of  set  standards  to  be  formally  applied  by  a  State 
department  to  all  conditions  alike  that  may  exist  in  a 
given  State  has  proven  impracticable.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  institution  higher  up  is  apt  to  fix  its  own  base 
line,  regardless  of  how  far  up  the  one  below  can  come, 
and  preserve  its  normal  condition  as  a  stage  in  a  con- 
tinuous evolution.     This,  too,  is  unsatisfactory. 

The  method  of  co-operative  study  of  the  scheme  of 
materials  and  exercises  that  make  up  the  curricula  of  all 
our  schools  is  more  to  the  purpose.  This  naturally 
brings  about  comparisons,  readjustments  working  down- 
ward instead  of  upward,  and  at  the  same  time  the  normal 
flexibility  and  adaptability  of  the  programme  as  a  grow- 
ing, changing  organism.  With  such  a  plan  in  opera- 
tion it  matters  not  so  much  from  what  quarter  the 
supervision  and  adjustment  of  these  articulations  for 
every-day  working  purposes  may  come.  The  one  essen- 
tial feature  of  it  is  that  it  should  be  in  rather  close  and 
intimate  touch  with  the  work  that  is  actually  in  progress 
on  both  sides  of  a  given  hne  of  contact. 

In  the  case  of  the  lower  grades,  this  work  may  be  well 
cared  for  by  the  supervising  forces  in  our  city  and  county 
systems.  The  chief  point  of  difficulty  Ues  between  the 
high  school  and  the  higher  institutions.  The  most  suc- 
cessful working  plan  thus  far  devised  in  this  case  has 
been  found  to  be  the  co-operative  plan  for  the  study  of 
standards,  with  a  man  of  large  experience  in  public 
high-school  work  coming  back  to  these  schools  as  ad- 
juster from  a  place  in  the  ranks  of  university  instructors. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  mSPECTION  OF  SCHOOLS 

I.  Definitions 

From  the  preceding  chapters  it  must  be  evident  that 
we  are  still  using  most  of  the  terms  referring  to  educa- 
tional administration  somewhat  loosely.  In  the  discus- 
sion of  "Supervision,"  for  instance,  the  terms  "superin- 
tendent" and  "supervisor"  are  sometimes  used  as 
synonyms  and  sometimes  as  having  quite  different 
shades  of  meaning.  Our  dictionaries,  in  fact,  permit  the 
treatment  of  the  three  terms  "inspection,"  "supervision," 
and  "superintending"  as  synonyms.  It  seems  fitting, 
however,  that  the  educational  public,  at  least,  should 
agree  upon  differentiated  meanings  of  these  terms  in 
any  discussion  of  administration.  Professor  E.  C.  Elliott 
has  already  called  attention  to  such  a  differentiation 
when  he  speaks  of  the  external  forms  of  control  of  the 
school  as  "(a)  the  legislative,  (b)  the  administrative, 
(c)  the  supervisory,  and  (d)  the  inspectorial."  ^  Prob- 
ably not  all  would  agree  with  his  use  of  these  terms. 
For  instance,  he  uses  "administrative"  in  a  much  more 
restricted  sense  than  the  common  acceptation  of  this 
term  among  educational  writers  seems  to  warrant.  He 
thus  makes  the  terms  "supervisory"  and  "inspectorial" 

*  "  Instruction;  Its  Organization  and  Control,"  by  Edward  C.  Elliott, 
chap.  V,  pp.  107-110,  in  "  High  School  Education,"  by  C.  H.  Johnston 
and  others.     New  York,  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  191 2. 

249 


250  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

co-ordinates  of  "administrative/'  instead  of  subdivisions 
of  it,  as  in  the  present  writing.  He  also  fails  to  differ- 
entiate supervision  from  superintending,  although  we 
are  much  in  need  of  the  two  terms  with  a  distinctness 
of  meaning  at  our  present  stage  of  progress  in  the  formu- 
lation of  a  science  of  education. 

In  our  chapter  on  "Supervision"  the  purely  s)niony- 
moususe  of  the  three  terms  "inspection,"  "supervision," 
and  "superintending"  has  been  adhered  to  or  implied 
because  we  are  there  dealing  in  a  general  way  with  sev- 
eral phases  of  closely  related  aspects  of  the  administra- 
tion of  instruction  in  our  schools.  The  manifestly  rapid 
development  of  a  field  generally  designated  as  the 
"inspection  of  schools"  makes  it  desirable  at  this  point 
to  define  the  three  fimctions  to  which  we  refer  when  we 
make  use  of  the  three  terms  in  question.  Such  defining 
is  also  necessary  in  order  to  be  more  strictly  in  accord 
with  our  present  plan  of  treatment  of  the  field  of  school 
administration. 

We  speak  of  a  superintendent  as  one  who  exercises  a 
watchful  care  and  direction  over  a  group  or  series  of 
processes  directed  toward  a  common  end  or  interest. 
Such  a  function  may  or  may  not  involve  direct  personal 
contact  with  those  directly  engaged  in  carrying  out  the 
details  of  the  work  which  a  given  project  requires.  It 
may  even  be  true  that  a  superintendent  is  practically 
imknown,  as  a  person,  to  most  of  those  actually  at  work 
under  him.  At  the  same  time,  these  workers  may  be 
overseen,  or  "supervised,"  by  experts  selected  for  that 
purpose.  Thus,  the  supervisor  comes  into  direct  per- 
sonal contact  with  those  of  whose  work  he  is  the  over- 
seer. 

In  a  small  system,  where  comparatively  few  workmen 
are  involved,  one  person  may  perform  the  two  functions. 


THE  INSPECTION  OF  SCHOOLS  251 

Likewise,  the  supervisor  may  be  a  workman,  or  a  super- 
intendent both  supervisor  and  workman — all  three  in 
the  one  person.  But  the  one  who  is  only  a  workman 
cannot  be  a  supervisor;  nor  can  the  one  who  is  only 
supervisor  and  workman  be  said  to  be  a  superintendent. 

We  need  these  two  terms,  each  with  a  distinct  meaning, 
when  we  are  discussing  large  city  school  systems  or 
other  large  units  of  control  in  education.  Otherwise,  we 
shall  constantly  be  getting  confused  in  our  discussions 
of  administration.  So,  also,  the  terms  "inspector"  and 
''inspection"  are  coming  to  be  a  necessity  in  our  ad- 
ministrative terminology. 

An  "inspector"  is  one  who  looks  into  or  investigates 
a  process  or  an  institution  in  an  ofl&cial  capacity.  He  is 
not  habitually  in  personal  contact  with  the  workers, 
nor  does  he  necessarily  have  authority  to  direct  as  super- 
intendent. He  represents  a  third  factor,  whose  function 
it  is  to  see  whether  or  not  the  end  sought  by  the  process 
or  institution  is  being  attained.  It  is  true  that  either 
the  one  who  superintends  or  the  one  that  supervises 
may  also  at  the  same  time  be  acting  as  inspector;  but 
not  the  other  way  about  if  we  adhere  strictly  to  the 
meaning  of  terms.  Thus  far  in  practice  there  has  been 
a  general  confusion  of  function  as  well  as  of  terminology; 
but  we  seem  to  be  gradually  emerging  into-arxondition 
where  distinctions  in  both  respects  are  to  be  more  marked 
and  specific. 

In  a  large  city  system,  for  instance,  there  is  necessarily 
a  superintendent  managing  and  directing  the  work  of 
all  the  schools.  But  this  superintendent  must  depend 
upon  others  to  directly  supervise  instruction.  These 
supervisors  we  have  found  to  be  either  (a)  those  who 
oversee  the  instruction  in  special  subjects,  as  music, 
drawing,  domestic  arts,  and  science ;  (6)  those  who  super- 


252  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

vise  the  instruction  in  a  given  district,  or  of  a  given  grade ; 
or  (c)  supervising  principals  placed  over  the  schools  of 
separate  buildings. 

In  a  State  system  we  may  have  a  general  superin- 
tendent of  instruction  with  special  functions  distributed 
among  several  assistants.  There  may  also  be  inspectors, 
such  as  of  school  buildings  with  reference  to  sanitation 
and  safety,  or  of  the  general  character  and  work  of  the 
schools  with  reference  to  certain  standards  required  as  a 
basis  for  the  distribution  of  State  funds  or  other  pur- 
poses. We  could  scarcely  say  that  there  would  be  any 
strictly  supervisory  function  by  the  State,  with  reference 
to  instruction  in  the  schools,  imless  it  should  be  of  that 
in  State  institutions. 

2.    Recent  Development  of  the  Inspectorial  Function  in 
Education 

The  office  of  inspector  in  city  systems  is  at  present  con- 
fined chiefly  to  the  two  functions  of  medical  inspection 
and  the  inspection  of  buildings  and  grounds.  Aside 
from  this  the  development  of  inspection  has  thus  far 
been  mostly  by  States  as  units  rather  than  by  districts, 
townships,  or  counties. 

In  the  inspectorial  work  of  States,  as  we  have  found 
in  most  other  phases  of  school  administration,  the  differ- 
ent units  have  as  yet  had  but  little  in  common.  The 
work  first  developed  in  the  East,  chiefly  in  Massachusetts. 
Here  it  has  related  largely  to  matters  of  health  and  safety, 
with  some  standardizing  of  schools  as  a  basis  for  certain 
subsidies  granted  by  the  State.  We  may  readily  sum- 
marize the  purposes  of  inspection  as  thus  far  developed 
under  the  following  heads:  (i)  health  and  sanitation; 
(2)  safety  of  buildings;  (3)  the  classification  and  stand- 
ardizing of  schools  (a)  as  a  basis  for  subsidizing,  (b)  as 


THE  INSPECTION  OF  SCHOOLS  253 

preparing  for  technical  and  professional  training  in 
higher  institutions,  (c)  as  fitting  for  certification  in  some 
department  of  civil  service.  The  widest  possible  varia- 
tions have  occurred  under  (3). 

3.    Some  Interesting  Variations  and  Their  Causes 

In  New  England  and  the  Eastern  States  schools  have 
been  standardized  chiefly  as  a  basis  for  subsidization. 
Until  recently  the  matter  of  preparation  for  college  and 
university  work  has  been  cared  for  in  that  section  by 
means  of  entrance  examinations  and  by  certification 
based  upon  the  scholarship  records  of  students  entering 
from  the  different  secondary  schools.  The  New  England 
College  Entrance  Certificating  Board  is  one  of  the  re- 
sulting developments.  The  very  elaborate  plan  of  in- 
spection recently  developed  in  New  York  stands  out  as 
a  very  striking  type,  unlike  all  others  in  most  respects. 
Under  this  system  regents'  examinations  and  school 
inspection  are  inseparably  associated.  The  inspectors 
are  chosen  primarily  to  inspect  by  academic  subjects, 
although  they  also  may  be  expected  to  check  up  all  the 
academic  work  of  any  school  they  may  visit.  These 
inspectors  are  looking  especially  into  the  instructional 
work  of  the  secondary  schools  in  order  to  make  possible 
the  highest  degree  of  progress  and  to  see  to  it  that  the 
examinations  correspond  to  the  work  of  the  schools. 
They  are  also  charged  with  the  enforcement  of  such 
legal  provisions  as  compulsory  attendance,  fire  laws, 
sanitation,  and  equipment  generally.  As  these  latter 
features  become  adjusted  their  work  takes  on  a  form 
more  pedagogical  in  character,  thus  assuming  the  super- 
visory aspect. 

To  the  States  of  the  South  and  West,  however,  a  some- 
what different  problem  of  inspection  is  presented.     Most 


254  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

of  these  States  have  developed  strong  normal  schools, 
State  colleges,  and  universities.  The  last  named  institu- 
tions early  adopted  the  certificating  plan  for  admission 
of  high-school  graduates.  Long  before  there  was  any- 
thought  of  State  high-school  supervision  or  inspection 
in  those  sections  the  State  universities  found  it  neces- 
sary to  inspect  and  standardize  high  schools  in  order  to 
be  able  to  operate  successfully  the  certificating  plan. 
Such  inspection  began  in  Michigan  and  spread  rap- 
idly to  the  North  Central  States.  More  recently  the 
Southern  States,  through  the  co-operation  of  the  General 
Education  Board,  have  adopted  a  similar  plan. 

This  relationship  was  entirely  voluntary  on  the  part 
of  high  schools  and  universities  and  was  entered  upon 
for  mutual  helpfulness  in  furthering  the  cause  of  State 
education.  The  standards  established  were  usually  those 
recognized  as  essential  to  efficiency  of  work  along  the 
lines  of  preparation  everywhere  considered  as  the  staples 
of  high-school  education. 

Gradually  through  the  North  and  West  other  influ- 
ences have  developed  to  modify  this  situation.  Some 
States  have  undertaken  to  subsidize  high  schools.  Oth- 
ers have  passed  laws  specifying  completion  of  high- 
school  work  as  a  prerequisite  to  certain  privileges,  as  in 
case  of  bar  examinations  and  the  standardizing  of  medi- 
cal education,  or  the  permission  of  high  schools  to  offer 
courses  for  the  normal  training  of  teachers.  In  most 
of  these  States  where  normal  schools  have  developed 
there  has  appeared  a  spirit  of  jealousy  toward  the  rapidly 
growing  universities.  Thus  through  a  combination  of 
causes  there  are  appearing  many  modifications  of  the 
original  methods  of  inspection  of  high  schools. 


THE  INSPECTION  OF  SCHOOLS  255 

4.    Tjrpes  of  Inspection  Developed 

In  the  North  Central  group  of  States  we  may  find  five 
distinct  types  or  conditions  of  inspection  as  a  result  of 
the  operation  of  the  above-named  forces:  (i)  State  De- 
partment and  university  inspection  working  co-opera- 
tively as  in  the  case  of  Missouri.  (2)  Two  distinct 
systems  of  inspection,  one  carried  on  through  the  State 
Department  and  the  other  by  the  university,  with  more 
or  less  of  duplication  and  some  friction.  This  type  is 
best  typified  by  Wisconsin.  (3)  Inspection  by  the  uni- 
versity only,  as  in  the  case  of  Michigan.  California  on 
the  coast,  and  Texas  in  the  South  are  of  the  same  type. 
(4)  Inspection  under  a  representative  State  board,  as  in 
Minnesota,  Indiana,  and  North  Dakota.  (5)  Inspec- 
tion through  the  State  Department  only,  as  in  the  cases 
of  South  Dakota  and  Montana.  As  for  the  rest,  it  may 
be  said  that  there  are  appearing  practically  as  many 
modifications,  or  combinations,  of  these  five  types  as 
there  are  States  remaining  in  the  North  and  West.  It 
is  fair  to  predict  that  none  of  these  types  will  continue 
long  as  they  are.  A  careful  study  of  the  whole  situa- 
tion seems  to  lead  to  the  conclusion  that,  as  yet,  no 
carefully  developed  plan,  organized  in  the  interests  of 
the  most  efiident  service  by  this  agency  for  the  im- 
provement of  instruction,  has  been  formulated. 

One  of  the  recent  and  interesting  types  to  develop  in 
the  field  of  inspection  is  that  now  in  process  of  organiza- 
tion in  Kansas.  The  situation  in  that  State  may  be 
best  epitomized  by  the  following  from  a  recent  letter 
by  Hon.  E.  T.  Hackney,  president  of  the  State  Board 
of  Administration,  a  board  created  at  the  last  session  of 
the  legislature:  "We  are  trying  to  so  organize  our 
inspection  work  for  the  high  schools,  that  we  will  not 


256  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

duplicate  inspection  in  any  case.  With  that  in  view  we 
have  a  secretary  who  has  charge  of  the  general  field,  and 
he  can  send  a  man  from  any  of  the  institutions  to  make 
the  inspection  for  him,  usually  selecting  a  man  who  is 
best  fitted  to  do  the  inspection  work  and  who  resides 
closest  to  the  school  to  be  inspected.  Generally  the  in- 
spection work  is  done  by  one  man  in  each  school,  and 
he  takes  enough  time  to  cover  a  number  of  cities  on 
one  trip." 

Here  is  an  honest  effort  to  secure  two  very  important 
conditions  of  efl&cient  inspection — a  unified  plan  which 
eliminates  duplication  and  conflict,  and  economy  in  its 
execution.  The  former  is  provided  for  by  the  simple 
device  of  a  general  secretary  with  power  to  direct  in- 
spection, the  latter  by  utilizing  men  from  different 
institutions  to  inspect  the  schools  in  their  vicinities. 
The  second  may  also  become,  in  some  degree,  a  imify- 
ing  principle  under  tactful  management. 

Iowa  has  recently  evolved  a  plan  of  inspection  under 
a  State  Board  of  Secondary  School  Relations,  appointed 
by  the  State  Board  of  Education  of  that  State.  This 
would  come  under  type  (4),  as  given  above,  were  it  not 
for  a  recent  development  which  establishes  inspection 
also  from  the  State  Department. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  recent  enactment  for 
the  administration  of  inspectorial  work  is  that  provided 
for  by  an  extraordinary  session  of  the  legislature  for  the 
State  of  Ohio,  February,  1914.  Section  7753  of  this  new 
school  code  reads  as  follows: 

The  superintendent  of  public  instruction  shall  appoint  two 
competent  public  high-school  inspectors,  who  are  connected 
with  no  college  or  university,  two  public  high-school  inspectors 
selected  from  the  faculty  staff  of  the  college  of  education  of 
Ohio  State  University,  and  one  public  high-school  inspector  from 


THE  INSPECTION  OF  SCHOOLS  257 

each  of  the  faculties  of  the  Ohio  normal  colleges  at  Oxford  and 
Athens  and  the  Ohio  normal  schools  at  Kent  and  Bowling  Green. 
The  inspectors  appointed  by  the  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction from  the  faculty  staffs  of  the  college  of  education, 
normal  colleges,  and  normal  schools  shall  be  nominated  by  the 
presidents  of  their  respective  institutions.  The  superintendent 
of  public  instruction  may  also  appoint,  when  necessary,  com- 
petent instructors  from  any  public  or  private  school  to  inspect 
such  high  schools  as  the  superintendent  may  direct. 

The  law  goes  on  to  define  the  duties  of  these  inspectors. 
Those  from  the  various  institutions  are  to  devote  not 
more  than  half  of  their  time  to  the  work,  while  those 
appointed  by  the  superintendent  directly  are  to  give  all 
of  their  time  to  inspection.  The  inspectors  are  to  meet 
on  call  at  Columbus  for  conference  with  regard  to  stand- 
ards to  be  established.  They  are  to  report  all  inspec- 
tions of  schools  to  the  department  and  to  each  of  the 
institutions  named  above.  All  final  recommendations 
for  the  rating  or  approval  of  schools  are  to  be  based  on 
a  majority  vote  of  the  inspectors. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  the  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  in  Ohio  is  not  elected  by  popular  vote, 
but  appointed  by  the  governor  of  the  State,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  above  legislation  marks  a  distinct  step  in 
the  effort  to  satisfactorily  solve  the  problem  presented 
by  this  particular  phase  of  the  administration  of  instruc- 
tion. If  this  remarkable  new  educational  code  had  made 
provision  for  the  appointment  of  the  chief  educational 
executive  of  the  State  by  a  State  board  of  education,  as 
discussed  in  chapter  VII,  it  would  have  given  practically 
an  ideal  solution  to  the  problem.  As  it  is,  the  departure 
thus  taken  in  Ohio  from  the  original  methods  of  inspec- 
tion in  that  State  will  be  followed  with  great  interest  by 
all  students  of  school  administration. 

There  are  various  other  departures  from  the  special 


258  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

types  enumerated,  which  should  be  mentioned  here. 
Iowa  has  recently  provided,  through  the  State  Depart- 
ment, for  an  inspector  of  normal  courses  in  high  schools 
and  inspectors  of  the  smaller  high  schools.  This  now 
gives  the  State  Department  three  inspectors,  while  the 
State  Board  employs  an  inspector  and  two  assistants. 
The  University  of  Minnesota  provides  for  the  inspec- 
tion for  accrediting  private  secondary  schools  and  non- 
subsidized  pubUc  high  schools.  Cincinnati  University 
provides  an  inspector  for  accrediting  secondary  schools 
both  in  the  city  and  outside.  This  inspector  is  also 
professor  of  secondary  education  and  assistant  superin- 
tendent of  the  city  schools.  In  this  latter  capacity  his 
supervision  extends  only  to  high  schools,  on  which  he 
reports  to  the  superintendent.  He  also  recommends 
teachers  for  appointment  to  positions  in  the  high  schools. 
As  professor  of  secondary  education  he  participates  in 
the  training  of  teachers  of  secondary  grade.  Illinois  has 
recently  provided  an  assistant  to  the  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  whose  special  function  is  announced 
as  the  standardizing  of  high  schools,  with  special  refer- 
ence to  the  execution  of  the  new  free-tuition  law  and  the 
certificating  law,  both  of  which  were  enacted  in  19 13. 
Heretofore,  for  the  past  twenty-five  years,  all  inspection 
and  standardizing  in  the  State  have  been  done  through 
the  university.  The  University  of  Chicago  has  a  system 
of  afiiliated  schools  whose  relationship  is  determined  by 
inspection.  This  list  is  not  confined  to  the  State  of 
Illinois. 

5.    Work  of  the  General  Education  Board  in  the  South 

In  the  Southern  group  of  States  the  General  Education 
Board  in  most  cases  pays  the  expenses  of  inspection. 
The  States  included  in  this  group  are  Virginia,  West  Vir- 


THE  INSPECTION  OF  SCHOOLS  259 

ginia,  Georgia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Florida, 
Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana  (until  recently),  Ten- 
nessee, Kentucky,  and  Arkansas.  In  all  cases,  except 
Arkansas  and  Louisiana,  the  inspector  is  attached  to  the 
department  of  education  of  the  university  and  is  paid 
through  that  institution.  In  the  two  States  excepted, 
the  ofl&ce  is  attached  to  the  State  Department. 

Under  this  arrangement  in  all  the  States  of  the  South 
the  inspector  co-operates  with  the  State  Department, 
making  regular  reports  to  that  department  as  a  basis 
for  meeting  other  needs  for  standardization  in  each  par- 
ticular State.  In  all  but  the  two  named  above,  the  in- 
spector is  also  a  lecturer  in  the  department  of  secondary 
education  in  the  State  University.  Thus,  a  complete 
uniform  and  co-operative  plan  is  provided  without  dupli- 
cation or  friction. 

Since  this  work  of  inspecting  and  lecturing  on  secon- 
dary education  under  the  General  Education  Board  be- 
gan in  1905,  $12,000,000  has  been  expended  in  new  high- 
school  buildings,  and  there  has  been  an  increase  of 
$2,500,000  in  the  annual  income  of  high  schools.  The 
number  of  public  high  schools  has  increased  from  1,032 
in  1900  to  2,194  in  19 10;  the  number  of  teachers  from 
2,648  to  6,482;  and  the  number  of  pupils  from  62,289 
to  137,469-' 

The  exceptional  case  among  the  above-named  group 
of  States  where  two  inspectors  are  employed,  the  sec- 
ond one  being  for  the  State  Department,  is  Tennessee; 
but  in  this  case  the  two  co-operate  most  harmoniously. 
Texas,  as  has  been  previously  noted,  has  only  university 
inspection  at  present  and  is  independent  of  the  General 
Education  Board. 

*  The  author  is  indebted  to  Professor  J.  S.  Stewart  of  Athens,  Georgia, 
for  the  information  concerning  southern  high-school  inspection. 


260  ADMINISTRATION  OF   EDUCATION 


6.    Associations  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools 

Besides  these  various  systems  of  State  inspection  of 
schools,  there  exist  two  organizations  of  colleges  and  sec- 
ondary schools,  including  respectively  the  North  Central 
States  and  the  Southern  States.  These  organizations 
are  for  co-operation  among  the  States  with  special  ref- 
erence to  the  accrediting  of  schools  for  college  entrance 
by  certificate.  The  standards  adopted  necessarily  vary 
somewhat  from  those  of  any  one  State.  This  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  they  must  include  all  of  the  highest  stand- 
ards of  all  the  States  in  the  group.  It  is  also  intended 
thus  to  establish  an  ideal  to  which  the  weaker  schools 
may  aim  to  attain. 

The  inspection  for  these  associations  is  done  by  the 
regular  inspectors  of  the  States,  who  have  in  charge  the 
accrediting  for  university  entrance.  They  report  to  all 
the  inspectors  in  a  body,  and  after  the  approval  of  these 
reports  by  the  board  of  inspectors,  a  report  is  made  to 
a  representative  body  or  commission  on  accredited  rela- 
tions. The  advantage  of  such  uniform  accrediting  falls 
chiefly  to  the  secondary  schools  and  to  such  higher  in- 
stitutions, within  and  without  the  territory  included,  as 
do  not  maintain  accredited  lists  of  their  own.  It  has 
exerted  a  marked  influence  in  raising  the  standards  of 
efl&ciency  in  secondary-school  work  of  the  two  sections 
included  by  these  associations.  There  has  also  resulted 
a  fine  spirit  of  mutual  understanding  and  co-operation 
among  the  colleges  and  secondary  schools. 

7.    Some  Conclusions 

From  this  brief  survey  of  the  field  of  inspection  it  is 
easy  to  discern  a  condition  of  transition  in  which  there 


THE  INSPECTION  OF  SCHOOLS  261 

is  at  present  no  distinctly  basic  principle  dominant. 
The  very  rapid  development  of  three  types  of  institu- 
tions in  our  State  systems  of  education — high  schools, 
normal  schools,  and  universities — has  brought  about  this 
state  of  confusion.  Conditions  widely  at  variance  in 
different  sections  of  the  country  have  tended  in  no  small 
degree  to  enhance  the  resulting  turmoil  among  our  edu- 
cational forces.  Had  there  been  State  universities  from 
the  beginning,  and  in  all  the  States,  the  situation  would  be 
greatly  simplified.  So,  likewise,  would  the  non-political 
organization  of  all  state  departments  of  education  or 
public  instruction  have  greatly  reduced  the  present  com- 
plexity of  conditions. 

But,  since  conditions  are  as  we  find  them,  it  behooves 
all  who  are  sincerely  and  unselfishly  concerned  with 
the  development  and  perfection  of  our  system  of  public 
education  to  make  a  careful  survey  of  the  field  and  seek, 
to  evaluate  the  different  forces  which  are  now  seemingly 
contending  for  recognition  or  mastery  in  this  relatively 
new  field  of  administrative  responsibility.  To  enumer- 
ate again,  these  forces  are:  (i)  State  universities,  which 
originated  the  practice  of  inspection  for  standardization, 
in  order  to  be  able  to  extend  to  high  schools  the  boon  of 
entrance  by  certificate  instead  of  the  entrance  examina- 
tion. (2)  State  departments  upon  which  legislation  has 
laid  the  duty,  either  directly  or  by  implication,  of  stand- 
ardizing high  schools  for  granting  of  subsidies  and  other 
purposes.  (3)  State  normal  schools  seeking  to  find  their 
exact  place  in  the  general  scheme  of  State  education, 
from  which  they  seem  to  have  been  detached  temporarily. 
(4)  Institutions  on  private  foundations  which,  by  reason 
of  the  traditions  on  which  they  were  established,  do  not 
find  it  easy  to  recognize  general  State  standards  for  col- 
lege entrance. 


262  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

Now,  these  are  all  worthy  factors  in  our  scheme  for 
the  general  diffusion  of  intelligence  and  scholarly  attain- 
ments. Each  should,  therefore,  receive  such  sympathetic 
and  broad-minded  treatment  as  may  be  due  in  the  light 
of  what  may  be  found  desirable  and  necessary  to  the  highest 
efficiency  of  the  public-school  system  of  the  State.  Certainly 
no  such  motive  as  a  mean  jealousy,  or  the  desire  for  ag- 
grandizement of  a  public  office,  or  selfish  interest  in  any 
kind  of  institution  should  be  permitted  to  restrain  or 
hinder  such  administrative  organization  as  may  be  found 
to  be  best  suited  to  the  attainment  of  that  efficiency. 

Let  us  seek  to  examine  further  into  the  aims  and  prin- 
ciples involved  in  this  undertaking.  First  of  all,  it  is 
proposed,  for  diverse  purposes,  to  standardize  our  high 
schools.  Now,  it  is  in  the  very  nature  of  standardiza- 
tion to  tend  to  bring  about  a  static  condition  of  any  in- 
stitution. Our  school  system  is,  and  should  always  be, 
a  growing  organism.  Its  most  marked  characteristic 
should  be  its  readiness  of  adjustabiUty  to  the  changing 
conditions  and  needs  of  society.  In  dealing  with  this 
matter  of  inspection,  therefore,  what  conditions  on  the 
part  of  the  inspecting  staff  of  a  State  are  most  Ukely  to 
operate  in  favor  of  continued  growth  and  adjustability? 
Will  routine  work  by  officials  from  a  State  department 
or  under  a  State  board  be  most  conducive  to  such  growth? 
Or  will  there  be  a  distinct  advantage  in  favor  of  close 
contact  on  the  State  side  with  a  State  institution  of 
learning?  And  if  we  are  choosing  a  State  institution, 
would  it  be  preferably  a  normal  school  or  a  university, 
or  does  it  make  no  difference  either  way? 

However  people  may  differ  as  to  the  possible  evolution 
of  the  normal  school,  it  must  always  be  true  that  its 
most  distinct  function,  in  most  cases,  at  least,  will  be  the 
preparation  of  elementary-school  teachers.     On  the  other 


THE  INSPECTION  OF  SCHOOLS  263 

hand,  it  will  always,  in  the  nature  of  things,  be  the 
primary  function  of  the  university  to  deal  with  the  sources 
of  knowledge  and  with  the  more  complete  organization 
of  systems  of  science  and  philosophy.  Which  of  these 
contacts  is  most  likely  to  preserve  in  the  inspector  that 
attitude  most  favorable  to  the  growth  and  adjustability 
of  the  schools  he  inspects? 

Inspectors  themselves  everywhere  shrink  from  the 
narrowing  tendencies  of  their  work  when  it  is  exclusively 
that  of  inspection.  Any  one  of  them  would  gladly  turn 
from  the  work  to  accept  a  professorship  in  education. 
If  we  ask  them  why,  they  will  tell  us  that  the  fundamen- 
tal reason  is  the  desire  to  escape  from  the  inevitable  fate 
of  a  formal,  routine  service.  University  inspection  has 
everywhere  been  characterized  chiefly  by  the  construc- 
tiveness  of  its  policy.  The  universities  have  sought,  as 
best  they  might,  to  turn  to  the  high  schools,  through  the 
ofl&ce  of  the  inspector,  all  the  forces  of  their  influence 
available  for  that  purpose  toward  the  development  of 
better  high  schools.  They  have  most  frequently  led  in 
the  advocacy  of  a  broader  and  more  liberal  progranmie 
of  studies  for  the  secondary  stage  of  education. 

A  most  common  oversight  of  those  who  advocate  a 
purely  bureaucratic  management  of  inspection  is  the 
tendency  to  take  as  standards  those  States  where  there 
is  no  State  university.  They  overlook  the  fact  that  here 
is  a  great  co-ordinate  force  in  the  field  of  State  education 
which  is  not  to  be  found  in  Massachusetts  or  New  York; 
that  the  institution  representing  this  force  is  inseparably 
bound  up,  in  its  interests,  with  high  schools  and  normal 
schools;  that  the  logical  solution  of  the  problem  is, 
therefore,  in  a  State  board,  through  which  these  differ- 
ent forces  and  State  supervision,  duly  co-ordinated,  may 
develop  harmoniously  in  all  their  interrelationships,  as 


264  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

has  already  been  pointed  out  in  the  chapters  on  Boards 
of  Education  and  Supervision. 

The  recent  development  of  inspection  in  the  South 
indicates  that  there  has  been  in  the  minds  of  those  who 
have  organized  it  a  clear  recognition  of  a  distinct  advan- 
tage in  having  university  co-operation  in  this  work.  A 
similar  attitude  is  noted  in  the  recent  changes  in  Iowa, 
Kansas,  and  Ohio,  although  not  so  distinct  as  in  the 
Southern  adjustment. 

It  would  be  unfortunate  for  both  high-school  and 
university  education,  if  a  day  should  come  when  States 
should  undertake  to  determine  all  standards  of  inter- 
relationship between  public  secondary  schools,  normal 
schools,  and  universities  without  co-operation  among 
these  institutions  and  the  consequent  free  and  ready 
transfer  of  the  vitalizing  principles  of  growth.  Such  a 
result  would  seem  inevitably  to  lead  to  a  state  of  rigid 
formalism  in  education  on  a  plane  of  mediocrity  such  as 
no  nation  or  age  has  ever  yet  witnessed. 

In  his  study  of  "Admission  to  College  by  Certificate," 
Professor  Joseph  L.  Henderson,  visitor  of  schools  for  the 
University  of  Texas,  has  summed  up  the  matter  fairly 
when  he  advocates  that  the  work  of  visitation  and  classi- 
fication of  schools  be  conducted  by  State  imiversities  in 
all  States  where  this  has  long  been  the  practice. 

In  some  situations  he  would  favor  a  control  shared  by 
the  State  university  and  the  State  department.  In  such 
cases,  the  State  department  would  give  attention  to  the 
enforcement  of  all  legal  requirements  such  as  affect  phys- 
ical conditions,  or  the  status  of  diiBferent  types  of  schools 
to  be  organized.  This  would  leave  the  determination  of 
scholastic  standards  mainly  to  the  universities. 

In  cases  where  boards  are  in  control,  he  holds  that 
universities  should  assist  in  maintaining  such  standards 


THE  INSPECTION  OF  SCHOOLS  265 

as  are  necessary  to  the  successful  use  of  the  certificating 
system  of  college  entrance. 

In  larger  district  organization  he  sees  also  an  advan- 
tage to  the  different  States  included  in  toning  up  their 
respective  systems  and  giving  a  still  higher  standard  for 
the  stronger  schools.  He  suggests  the  desirabihty  even 
of  a  national  system  of  standardizing  through  the  Na- 
tional Association  of  State  Universities. 

He  closes  with  these  words:  "No  system  of  certifica- 
tion which  does  not  regard  the  welfare  of  the  schools 
and  colleges  alike  and  which  does  not  bring  them  to- 
gether in  intimate  co-operation  for  the  upbuilding  of  the 
entire  school  system  will  meet  the  demands  which  gave 
rise  to  the  fundamental  idea  of  admission  to  college  by 
certificate."  ^ 

Probably  no  one  has  come  nearer  to  stating  a  clear 
basis  for  adjustment  in  this  new  field  of  administrative 
effort.  Given  a  State  board  with  sufficient  authority, 
and  with  clearly  defined  powers  and  duties  covering  this 
particular  aspect  of  a  State  system  of  education,  and  it 
would  seem  possible  to  elaborate  a  scheme  of  co-opera- 
tion which  would  work  to  the  general  advantage  of  all 
concerned.  The  treatments  suggested  by  Professor  Hen- 
derson for  the  different  types  presented  by  present 
State  organizations  would  then  help  at  least  to  point 
the  way  to  effective  solutions. 

^  See  "Admission  to  College  by  Certificate,"  by  Joseph  L.  Hender- 
son, Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  Contributions  to  Educa- 
tion, 1912,  especially  pp.  168-9. 


CHAPTER  XV 

/  SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE 

One  very  vital  phase  of  the  administration  of  instruc- 
tion and  one  directly  related  to  the  supervision  of  schools 
is  the  problem  of  securing  normal  attendance.  Of  what 
good  is  it  that  society  maintain  schools  at  such  cost  to 
all  the  people  unless  the  ends  for  which  they  are  estab- 
lished be  attainable?  And  how  can  they  be  attainable 
if  a  considerable  proportion  of  those  who  should  avail 
themselves  of  the  privileges  of  free  schooling  refuse  or 
fail  to.  attend?  The  fifth  of  those  principles,  on  which 
schools  are  believed  to  be  established  and  maintained 
as  a  public  charge,  reads  as  follows:  "In  order  to  insure 
the  general  effectiveness  of  such  a  system  society  must, 
by  legal  compulsion  if  necessary,  see  to  it  that  parents 
keep  their  children  in  school  long  enough  to  enable  them 
to  get  at  least  the  minimum  of  knowledge,  wisdom,  and 
skill  necessary  to  the  highest  good  of  the  individual  and 
the  well-being  of  the  State."  ^ 

I.    Causes  Affecting  Attendance  at  School 

There  are  numerous  causes  which  tend  to  afifect  at- 
tendance at  school  in  almost  any  given  community.  The 
distance  which  pupils  have  to  go,  or  obstructions,  nat- 
ural or  artificial,  may  cause  irregular  attendance.     Fre- 

*  See  chapter  V,  p.  67. 
266 


SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE  267 

quently  in  the  outlying  districts  of  cities  homes  are  very 
much  scattered.  The  relatively  small  population  makes 
it  difl&cult  to  adjust  the  distribution  of  buildings.  Some 
families  are  sure  to  be  left  too  far  from  the  school  to 
enable  smaller  children  to  attend  with  regularity.  Some- 
times there  is  a  difficult  barrier  such  as  a  dangerous  rail- 
road crossing.  In  the  country,  likewise,  it  frequently 
happens  that  distances  are  too  great,  or  roads  impassable 
on  account  of  mud  or  a  swollen  stream. 

For  those  having  some  distance  to  walk  to  school  very 
rainy  or  severely  cold  weather  is  likely  to  affect  the  at- 
tendance. One  of  the  most  fruitful  causes  of  absence, 
however,  is  sickness,  or  quarantine  on  account  of  con- 
tagious diseases.  This  cause  operates  in  both  city  and 
country  and  presents  a  serious  problem  in  many  cases. 
The  whole  question  of  health  calls  for  very  careful  super- 
vision as  directly  affecting  the  instructional  work  of  the 
schools. 

Lack  of  proper  clothing  or  books,  and  often  lack  of 
food  among  the  very  poor  in  cities,  are  other  causes  for 
absence  or  total  non-attendance  unless  there  is  careful 
supervision,  and  provision  made  for  the  clothing,  food, 
and  books  necessary.  Closely  allied  to  these  causes  is  the 
support  of  large  famiUes  on  meagre  incomes,  which  makes 
the  work  of  the  older  children  in  the  family  a  bread-and- 
butter  necessity. 

A  dislike  for  school  and  indifference  of  parents  as  to 
the  need  of  education  have  been  found  to  be  fruitful 
sources  of  absenteeism  of  pupils  from  the  pubhc  schools 
both  in  city  and  in  country.  These  causes,  singly  or  in 
combination,  frequently  lead  to  more  serious  results  than 
just  absence  from  school.  Here  is  to  be  found  a  funda- 
mental cause  for  truancy,  which  soon  becomes  chronic 
and  often  leads  to  vagrancy  or  something  worse.     It 


268  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

is  here,  chiefly,  where  parental  schools  and  reformatories 
get  their  inmates. 

In  the  rural  districts  absence  of  older  pupils  who  should 
be  in  high  school  is  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  often 
the  high  schools  are  not  free  to  pupils  from  outside  the 
districts  by  which  they  are  established.  The  price  of 
tuition  then  becomes  the  drawback  and  keeps  a  large 
percentage  of  this  group  out  of  school  at  a  premature 
stage  in  their  education.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the 
problem  of  school  attendance  takes  on  many  forms  and 
calls  for  much  careful  supervision. 

2.     Legislation  Affecting  Attendance 

In  recent  years  the  problem  of  irregular  attendance 
has  become  a  matter  of  such  concern  as  to  enlist  the 
attention  of  State  legislators  very  generally.  According 
to  the  United  States  commissioner^  there  were,  prior  to 
1900,  over  thirty  States  that  had  enacted  laws  for  com- 
pulsory attendance.  At  first  the  legislation  was  not  of 
a  character  calculated  to  be  effective.  More  recently, 
however,  a  different  type  of  legislation  has  come  into  use. 
All  States  in  the  North  in  1910  required  attendance 
through  compulsory-attendance  laws.  Closely  allied  to 
this  compulsory-attendance  legislation  is  child-labor  leg- 
islation. This  also  shows  a  marked  advance,  especially 
in  the  later  forms  of  legislation  which  make  the  laws 
enacted  much  more  effective.  In  191 1  alone  important 
measures  improving  child-labor  provisions  were  adopted 
in  Colorado,  Indiana,  Michigan,  Missouri,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Tennessee,  Texas,  Utah,  and  Wisconsin.^ 

'  Com.  of  Education  Report,  191 1,  vol.  I,  pp.  17-18. 
» See  U.  S.  Com.  Report.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  104-5- 


SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE  269 

3.    The  Question  of  Free  Transportation 

States  are  also  beginning  to  provide,  through  legisla- 
tion, for  the  free  transportation  to  and  from  school  of 
children  living  beyond  certain  distances  from  the  school 
centre.  This  is  in  order  to  overcome  the  inequality  of 
the  cost  of  education  because  of  unequal  distances.  It 
is  all  a  part  of  the  movement  toward  consolidation  of 
rural  schools  with  the  purpose,  through  co-operation,  of 
getting  better  and  larger  educational  facilities  for  the  chil- 
dren of  the  country.  Even  in  cities  a  similar  provision 
has  to  be  made.  The  following  quotation  taken  from 
the  report  of  Associate  Superintendent  Haaren,  as  given 
in  the  Annual  Report  of  the  City  Superintendent  of 
Schools  of  the  City  of  New  York  for  1912,^  indicates  a 
situation  existing  in  that  city: 

"It  is,  of  course,  a  nice  question  to  determine  what 
duty  devolves  upon  the  city  to  furnish  transportation  to 
the  children  attending  its  schools,  but  there  is  no  ques- 
tion that  if  such  were  not  furnished,  not  only  would 
there  be  a  great  decrease  in  the  amount  of  money  al- 
lowed by  the  State  for  the  instruction  of  the  children, 
and  an  increase  in  the  diflSculty  of  enforcing  the  com- 
pulsory education  law,  but  a  great  decrease  in  the  op- 
portunity for  education  afiforded  the  children,  and  a 
consequent  loss  to  the  city  and  State  in  intelligent  citi- 
zenship." Here  is  a  concise  statement  of  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  whole  matter.  In  this  instance  it  is  an  oc- 
casion for  city  legislation.  Undoubtedly  there  is  here 
presented  a  problem  affecting  a  number  of  our  larger 
cities.  In  most  instances  the  portable  schoolhouse  fur- 
nishes a  fairly  good  solution;  but  there  are  always  some 
situations  on  the  extreme  borders,  or  where  people  live 
*  See  p.  287  of  the  Fourteenth  Annual  Report. 


270  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

scattered  through  a  commercial  district,  in  which  there 
are  not  enough  children  in  one  place  to  render  this  ar- 
rangement an  economical  one. 

Certainly  it  is  true  of  high  schools  that  there  are  fre- 
quently too  few  to  bring  out  the  normal  attendance  in 
a  city.  The  cost  of  transportation  in  time  and  money 
gets  to  the  point  where  it  is  too  burdensome  or  where  it 
outweighs  interest  in  further  education.  This  is  a  ques- 
tion in  city  management  of  schools  which  calls  for  a 
much  more  careful  study  and  adjustment,  in  many  in- 
stances, than  it  has  yet  received. 

4.    Free  Text-Book  Laws 

In  many  of  the  States,  especially  in  the  northeastern 
groups,  free  text-book  laws  are  in  force.  This  eliminates 
the  question  of  cost  to  families  in  this  particular  as  a 
bar  from  attendance  at  school.  In  still  other  States  the 
laws  permit  boards  of  education  to  provide  books  for 
"indigent  children."  This  seems  to  be  a  survival  of 
the  idea  of  free  schools  for  the  poor.  It  can  hardly  be 
said  to  take  the  place  of  free  text-books  outright  to  all 
aUke.  When  it  comes  to  providing  food  and  clothing, 
the  problem  is  a  different  one.  Some  cities  do  provide 
free  lunches  for  ill-fed  children,  and  a  number  of  cities 
provide  limches  at  actual  cost.  But  the  problem  of 
clothing  has  to  be  handled  usually  through  the  co-opera- 
tion of  some  one  or  more  charitable  organizations.  In 
the  city  of  New  York  out  of  about  one  third  of  the  school 
children,  this  being  the  number  examined  by  physicians 
in  191 2,  nearly  ten  thousand  children  were  found  to  be 
suffering  from  malnutrition.  While  this  subject  belongs 
properly  under  a  discussion  of  health,  yet  these  figures 
give  a  glimpse  of  the  importance  of  the  question  of  proper 
feeding  of  children  as  related  to  their  effective  instruc- 


SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE  271 

tion.  It  is  certainly  a  question  as  to  how  far  compul- 
sory-attendance laws  may  be  enforced  without  making 
provision  for  feeding  and  for  all  other  necessities  that  go 
along  with  that  physical  condition  essential  to  vigorous 
mental  growth. 

There  seems  to  be  a  decided  misconception  in  some 
quarters  as  to  the  purpose  and  necessity  of  lightening 
the  burden  of  education  upon  families  by  providing  gen- 
eral school  supplies,  text-books,  and  tuition  free,  and  at 
general  public  expense.  Here  and  there  may  be  heard 
the  charge  of  paternahsm,  either  muttered  or  loudly  pro- 
claimed, according  to  the  type  of  objector.  Let  it  be 
not  forgotten,  however,  that  these  items  fall  far  short 
of  covering  the  cost  to  parents  of  large,  or  even  moder- 
ately large,  families  of  keeping  their  children  in  school. 
The  problem  of  clothing  alone,  according  to  prevailing 
standards  in  most  urban  communities,  is  the  cause  of 
much  anxious  planning  and  economizing  in  many  an 
honest  citizen's  home.  There  is  little  danger,  imder 
stringent  attendance  and  child-labor  laws,  of  any  hurt- 
ful paternalism. 

5.    Free  Tuition  in  High  Schools 

Legislation  is  not  lacking  in  some  States  whereby  free 
tuition  in  high  schools  is  provided  for  all.  Indeed,  there 
is  a  recent  tendency  toward  free  high  schools  in  a  num- 
ber of  the  States,  especially  in  the  North  Central  and 
mountain  States.  Many  of  the  laws  are  as  yet  inade- 
quate or  faulty.  For  instance,  here  is  a  State  where 
there  is  a  constitutional  limitation  to  the  amount  which 
may  be  levied  for  school  purposes.  In  a  considerable 
number  of  village  districts,  and  especially  in  mining  or 
manufacturing  regions,  the  full  levy  is  required,  and 
more,  to  support  anything  like  adequate  elementary 


272  ADMINISTRATION   OF  EDUCATION 

schools.  In  such  a  State,  in  order  to  make  a  free-tui- 
tion law  constitutionally  valid,  it  is  necessary  to  limit 
what  a  district  may  pay  for  such  purposes  to  "funds 
not  otherwise  appropriated."  In  such  cases,  often  the 
most  needy,  it  is  impossible  for  the  non-high-school  dis- 
trict to  pay  any  tuition. 

California  meets  this  in  a  most  effective  way.  All 
non-high-school  territory  in  a  county  is  taxed  by  the 
county  supervisors  to  the  amount  necessary  to  pay  all 
tuition  accounts  incurred  by  the  attendance  of  pupils  in 
this  territory  upon  near-by  high  schools.  The  tuition 
in  this  case,  as  it  should  always  be,  is  the  actual  per- 
capita  cost  of  operating  the  school  attended,  including 
in  the  estimate  interest  on  the  money  invested  in  the 
school  plant. 

6.     Absence  from  School  as  a  Factor  in  Retardation 
and  Elimination 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that  absence  from  school,  what- 
ever the  cause,  is  a  strong  factor  in  the  retardation  and 
ultimate  elimination  of  pupils  from  their  classes.  Doc- 
tor Leonard  P.  Ayres  finds  in  irregular  attendance  one 
of  the  important  causes  of  retardation.  He  estimates 
that  less  than  three  fourths  of  the  children  in  our  cities 
continue  in  attendance  as  much  as  three  fourths  of  the 
year.  "Irregular  attendance,"  he  concludes,  "is  ac- 
companied by  a  low  percentage  of  promotions.  Low 
percentage  of  promotions  is  a  potent  factor  in  bringing 
about  retardation .     Retardation  results  in  elimination . "  ^ 

Doctor  C.  H.  Keyes,  in  his  study  of  progress  through 
the  grades  of  city  schools,'*  found  that  repetition  of 

'  "Laggards  in  Our  Schools,"  Leonard  P.  Ayres.  Charities  Publica- 
tion Committee,  New  York,  1909,  chap.  XII. 

-"Progress  through  the  Grades  of  City  Schools,"  C.  H.  Keyes, 
"Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  Contributions  to  Education," 
1911. 


SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE  273 

courses  is  directly  related  to  absence  from  school.  Out 
of  1,797  cases  absent  0-9  days  were  found  only  14  per 
cent  of  repeaters;  out  of  231  cases  absent  20-29  days, 
40  per  cent;  while  209  cases  absent  50  days  or  over  fur- 
nished 73  per  cent.  He  also  found  that  home  environ- 
ment had  a  very  direct  bearing  on  progress;  also  that 
changing  schools  was  responsible  for  very  many  cases 
of  repetitions.  On  the  latter  point  he  says:  "Changing 
schools  during  the  year  about  doubles  the  probability 
that  a  pupil  will  repeat  the  work  of  the  year  in  question." 
Superintendent  Maxwell,  of  New  York  City,  in  his 
annual  report  for  1912,^  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that 
the  chances  for  promotion  not  only  increase  as  the  period 
of  attendance  increases,  but  that  the  chances  are  very 
much  greater.  He  concludes  "that  there  is  no  more 
dominant  factor  in  promotion  than  regularity  of  atten- 
dance." 

7.    The  Truancy  Problem. 

The  truancy  problem  has  been  and  still  is  a  persistent 
one.  The  care  of  this  type  of  delinquency  is  not  only 
expensive  but  it  leads  to  so  many  unwholesome  after 
efifects  when  the  health  of  the  social  organism  is  consid- 
ered. Because  of  its  productiveness  of  evil,  it  is  desir- 
able that  every  possible  means  be  utilized  for  its  reduc- 
tion to  the  minimum  in  our  public  schools. 

Among  the  instrumentaUties  that  have  been  devised 
for  the  purpose  of  counteracting  or  overcoming  truancy 
may  be  mentioned  the  following:  i.  Special  or  ungraded 
classes.  2.  Courses  strongly  industrial,  such  as  prevo- 
cational  courses  for  boys.  3.  Transfer  to  rural  environ- 
ment for  agricultural  and  dairying  pursuits  along  with 
academic  training.     4.  Parental  schools  organized  in  the 

» Op.  cU.,  p.  86. 


274  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

city.  5.  Organizations  on  the  "Boyville"  or  "George, 
Jr.,  Republic"  basis,  in  which  the  organization  of  boys 
looks  after  the  individual  and  administers  all  necessary 
correction.  Such  organizations  are  easiest  to  operate 
where  the  boys  are  segregated  at  least  into  special  classes. 

Judging  from  such  experiments  as  have  thus  far  been 
made,  it  seems  likely  that  much  of  this  evil  would  be 
eliminated  by  the  establishment  of  the  intermediate 
school  on  a  departmental  basis  (see  chapter  XVII)  and 
the  general  introduction  of  a  larger  amount  of  industrial 
work  above  the  sixth  grade.  If,  added  to  this,  there 
could  be  more  attention  given  to  the  organization  of  all 
activities  of  the  school  on  a  "community-life"  basis,  it 
seems  likely  that  the  major  part  of  this  evil  would  be- 
come extinct  by  natural  processes.  And  as  for  any 
remnant  that  might  persist,  a  careful  attention  to  phys- 
ical or  mental  defects,  or  to  the  counteracting  of  home 
conditions  extremely  abnormal,  should  cause  a  practi- 
cally complete  disappearance  of  the  defect. 

The  attendance  department  of  the  Oakland,  Cal., 
schools,  in  its  report  for  1911-12,  puts  special  emphasis 
on  inadequate  home  conditions  as  a  cause  of  truancy  and 
non-attendance.  The  parental  home  is  there  recom- 
mended as  a  remedy. 

Superintendent  Maxwell,  of  New  York  City,  finds  that 
a  very  fruitful  cause  of  truancy  is  in  "the  issuance  of 
employment  certificates  to  boys  and  girls  who  have  not 
secured  employment."  ^  He  recommends  as  a  remedy 
that  school  records,  on  the  basis  of  which  alone  certifi- 
cates can  be  issued,  be  withheld  until  a  more  advanced 
grade  is  reached  and  until  evidence  is  produced  from 
the  prospective  employer  that  the  pupil  wiU  be  employed 
if  the  certificate  is  granted. 

'  Op.  cU.,  p.  241. 


SCHOOL  ATTENDANCE  276 

"We  are  told  that  17  per  cent  of  city  school  systems 
make  provision  for  morally  exceptional  children.*  These 
provisions  are  in  the  form  of  (i)  classes  for  the  delin- 
quent, incorrigible,  and  refractory,  or  (2)  parental  and 
residential  schools.     The  first  largely  predominates. 

8.    Plans  for  Supervision  of  Attendance 

A  very  effective  organization  for  a  medium-sized  city 
for  taking  care  of  this  problem  of  attendance  in  its  vari- 
ous aspects  is  that  of  the  city  of  Newark,  N.  J.  This  is 
a  city  of  about  three  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  popu- 
lation. The  head  of  the  attendance  department  is  Su- 
pervisor Charles  A.  MacCall,  who  has  been  in  this  ser- 
vice for  about  eleven  years.  He  is  assisted  by  a  number 
of  attendance  officers  sufficient  to  look  after  each  district 
of  the  city  promptly  and  thoroughly.  These  officers  are 
invested  with  authority  to  enforce  the  compulsory-at- 
tendance and  child-labor  laws.  There  is  a  complete 
system  of  reports.  The  attendance  department  co-oper- 
ates with  (a)  teachers  and  principals,  (6)  parents,  (c)  the 
medical  inspector,  (d)  the  parental  school  (not  under  the 
board  of  education),  (e)  the  juvenile  court.  It  seeks  the 
co-operation  of  employers  of  children  and  also  brings 
them  to  account  for  any  violation  of  the  child-labor  laws 
for  which  they  are  responsible.  The  department  also 
seeks  to  find  ways  and  means  for  providing  clothing 
where  the  lack  of  it  keeps  children  from  school.  This  is 
done  through  charitable  organizations  and  through  the 
aid  of  philanthropic  citizens  of  means.  The  city  is  pro- 
viding two  buildings,  one  on  each  side  of  the  city,  es- 
pecially planned  and  equipped  with  proper  faciUties  for 
the  rational  training  of  truants  and  other  delinquents. 

'  Bulletin,  191 1,  No.  14,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education.  "Provision  for 
Exceptional  Children  in  Public  Schools,"  p.  33. 


276  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

In  dealing  with  these  classes  the  officials  are  actuated 
fundamentally  by  the  idea  that  the  work  is  one  of  sal- 
vage to  society  of  efficient,  law-abiding  members  rather 
than  simply  to  protect  society  for  the  time  being  by  a 
forced  segregation  and  isolation  of  those  morally  defec- 
tive. Through  the  activity  of  this  department  for  the 
year  1910-11,  24,764  pupils  were  returned  to  pubHc 
schools  and  2,705  pupils  were  returned  to  parochial  and 
private  schools. 

As  regards  the  child-labor  law  of  New  Jersey  under 
which  the  attendance  supervisor  was  working,  Mr.  Mac- 
Call  expresses  the  significant  opinion  that  too  much 
stress  is  laid  upon  the  age  quahfication  and  too  little 
upon  the  educational  and  physical  qualifications.^ 

Here  we  have  reviewed  in  a  brief  way  one  of  the  most 
vitally  important  departments  of  supervision  having  to 
do  with  effective  instruction  in  our  schools.  The  fol- 
lowing words  from  Professor  Thomdike  serve  well  for  a 
conclusion  to  this  chapter i^  "Thus  to  release  people  more 
and  more  from  ordinary  labor  when  they  are  young  and 
protect  them  by  proper  early  training  from  disease,  ig- 
norance, waste,  misery,  and  baseness  is  for  the  general 
good.  Of  the  Hfetime  one  has  to  live  for  the  world,  a 
large  portion — say  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  years, 
according  to  the  individual's  nature — is  best  spent  in  ac- 
tivities chosen  for  their  value  in  making  his  whole  life 
finer  and  more  serviceable,  irrespective  of  their  immedi- 
ate money  price.  The  community  that  bravely  insists 
on  protecting  the  young  against  being  used  up  in  help- 
ing the  community  get  a  living  soon  finds  itself  getting 
a  better  hving,  and  other  things  of  much  more  worth." 

*  See  ssth  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education,  Newark,  N.  J., 
1910-11,  pp.  206-211. 
-"Education,"  E.  L.  Thomdike,  Macmillan,  1912,  pp.  236-8. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  AND  HEALTH 

I.    The  Principle  Involved 

The  fourth  principle  by  which  the  efficiency  of  our 
educational  system  may  be  tested  is:^  "The  situation 
demands  the  most  economic  treatment  of  the  problem 
of  education,  finandally,  in  the  matter  of  time,  and  also 
in  health  conditions,  that  is  consistent  with  its  most  effec- 
tive administration."  Society  is  rapidly  learning  that  a 
wise  economy  in  social  organization  demands  a  maximum 
of  conservation  of  individual  life  and  health,  with  the 
maximum  of  salvage  possible  from  those  who  are  physi- 
cally defective.  The  minimum  attainment  sought  with 
the  latter  group  is  to  render  each  individual  honestly 
self-sustaining.  Such  a  result  means  more  than  that  to 
the  individual.  It  carries  with  it  the  consciousness  of 
independence,  a  feehng  closely  related  to  that  of  self- 
respect. 

2.    Relation  of  Health  to  Attendance  and  Instruction 

Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  relation  which 
health  bears  to  attendance  at  school.  No  less  signifi- 
cant is  its  relation  to  the  successful  instruction  of  those 
who  remain  at  school.  It  has  long  been  known  that 
certain  chronic  pathological  conditions  in  children  tend 
•  See  p.  75,  chapter  V. 
277 


278  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

to  nullify  the  eflfects  of  instruction  even  under  circum- 
stances otherwise  most  favorable.  How  can  the  child 
whose  head  is  racked  with  pain  because  of  decaying 
teeth,  or  whose  breathing  is  impaired  by  adenoids  or 
catarrh,  or  whose  aching  head  throbs  because  of  strain 
upon  eyes  that  are  out  of  focus  be  expected  to  get  any 
satisfactory  results  from  study? 

On  the  point  of  attendance  Doctor  A,  H.  Hogarth 
says:^  "Systematic  medical  inspection  will  eventually 
lead  to  an  increased  attendance  of  children  at  school. 
The  report  of  the  interdepartmental  committee  on  medi- 
cal inspection  shows  that  the  various  medical  officers, 
who  have  already  acted  on  behalf  of  the  local  education 
authorities,  have  done  much  toward  improving  the  at- 
tendance of  the  children  at  school,  and  have  frequently 
prevented  unnecessary  school  closure,  in  cases  of  out- 
breaks of  epidemic  diseases."  Likewise  Doctor  Gulick 
and  Doctor  Ayres,  in  their  collaborated  work  on  medical 
inspection  of  schools,  say:^  "We  are  beginning  to  find 
out  that  many  of  our  backward  pupils  are  backward 
purely  and  simply  because,  through  physical  defects, 
they  are  unable  to  handle  the  work  of  the  school  pro- 
gramme. What  these  defects  are  and  the  causes  that 
lie  behind  them  are  things  that  we  must  know.  If  we 
do  not  know  them  we  must  find  them  out  and  guard 
against  them.  Education  without  health  is  useless."  In 
his  report  for  1910-11,  Doctor  George  J.  Holmes,  super- 
visor of  medical  inspection  for  the  city  of  Newark,  N.  J., 
shows  a  decrease  in  days  lost  by  quarantine  of  40,000 
as  compared  with  the  previous  year. 

^  "Medical  Insi>ection  of  Schools,"  A.  H.  Hogarth,  London,  Henry 
Frowde,  Oxford  Univ.  Press,  1909,  p.  66. 

^"Medical  Inspection  of  Schools,"  Luther  G.  Gulick,  M.D.,  and 
Leonard  P.  Ayres.    New  York  Charities  Pub.  Com.,  1908,  p.  16. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  AND   HEALTH        279 


3.     Health  Supervision  Demanded  as  Result  of 
Neglect 

A  knowledge  of  the  need  of  spontaneous  play  out-of- 
doors,  of  vigorous  physical  exercise  in  field  and  gymna- 
sium as  an  offset  to  the  evil  influences  of  an  indoor,  sed- 
entary life,  is  as  old,  at  least,  as  our  knowledge  of  the 
literature  of  the  ancient  Greeks.  In  our  anxiety  to  ac- 
complish great  results  in  intellectual  advancement  we 
have  shortened  the  hours  for  such  exercise  in  our  schools; 
and  because  of  the  false  economy  of  a  grossly  material 
age  we  have  denied  to  the  schools  the  necessary  open- 
air  space  and  the  appliances  for  out-of-door  stimulation 
of  the  physical  individual.  It  is,  indeed,  high  time  that 
health,  hygiene,  and  playground  evangelists  should  call 
attention  vigorously  to  this  neglect  and  the  results  it 
is  bringing  upon  us. 

4.    Medical  Inspection  the  First  Need 

No  scheme  for  education  is  complete  to-day  which 
does  not,  at  least,  undertake  to  make  provision  for  these 
conserving  factors  among  the  forces  of  the  schools.  And 
what  is  involved  in  such  a  provision?  First  of  all,  skilled 
medical  inspection  under  the  supervision  of  a  man  or 
woman  who  is  not  only  a  trained  physician  but  also 
understands  the  principles  of  physical  education.  Such 
a  supervisor  must  have  under  his  direction  enough  assis- 
tants to  enable  him  to  cover  the  field  of  his  office  thor- 
oughly. 

This  will  involve  more  than  medical  inspectors.  Those 
who  look  after  the  physical  education  directly  should  be 
subject  to  the  medical  inspector's  direction  in  so  far  as 
is  necessary  in  order  to  carry  out  the  prescriptions  made 


280  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

for  corrective  exercises  for  those  having  defects  to  be 
overcome  or  cured.  There  will  also  be  needed  trained 
nurses.  These  will  aid  at  the  free  clinics  which  will  be 
conducted  as  a  result  of  such  defects  as  decaying  teeth, 
adenoids,  and  other  remediable  conditions.  They  will 
also  follow  up  recommendations  made  to  parents  by 
visits,  in  order  to  make  plain  to  those  who  do  not  under- 
stand the  necessity  and  importance  of  such  treatment 
as  has  been  recommended. 

5.    The  Psychological  Clinic  Next 

Certainly  not  less  important,  though  more  difficult 
than  the  discovery  and  treatment  of  physical  defects,  are 
the  detection  and  effective  deahng  with  mental  defects. 
This  calls  for  the  psychological  clinic,  conducted  by  one 
or  more  skilled  speciaUsts  who  know  the  tests  and  their 
appUcation  in  determining  whether  the  child  is  mentally 
normal,  subnormal,  or  supernormal.  The  presence  of 
such  an  expert  or  department  in  the  school  system  will 
involve  also  the  provision  for  special  classes  for  the 
proper  treatment  of  those  found  to  be  abnormal,  with 
teachers  especially  qualified  to  apply  the  educational 
processes  prescribed. 

6.     Medical  Supervision  of  Games  and  Sports 
Required 

Either  this  organization  of  the  health  department  of 
the  schools  or  else  the  mimicipal  health  officer  will  look 
carefully  after  the  first  appearance  of  contagious  or  in- 
fectious diseases  among  pupils  and  will  promptly  take 
the  steps  necessary  for  their  eradication.  The  depart- 
ment of  physical  education,  in  co-operation  with  the 
health  department  of  the  schools,  will  closely  supervise 
the  games  and  sports  of  pupils  or  students  in  order  (a) 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  AND   HEALTH        281 

to  see  that  special  cases  are  getting  the  particular  treat- 
ment called  for;  and  (b)  in  order  to  forbid  a  form  of 
exercise  that  is  too  excessive  on  the  part  of  those  who 
are  suffering  from  such  defects  as  impeded  breathing, 
heart  weakness,  or  malnutrition. 

7.    Emphasis  Should  Be  Placed  on  Hygienic  Conditioiis 

To  be  most  efl&cient,  emphasis  will  be  placed  on  pro- 
phylactic treatment;  that  is,  the  health  department  will 
seek  to  prevent  disease  by  strict  attention  to  hygienic 
conditions  and  by  cultivating  respect  for  the  laws  of 
health.  The  water-supply  and  drinking  facihties,  dust- 
free  schoolrooms,  hygienic  seating  will  become  impor- 
tant elements  in  the  work  of  this  department.  Every 
county  system,  city,  normal  school,  college  or  university 
has  need  of  such  a  department,  thoroughly  organized 
and  equipped  for  good,  telling  service.  The  city  high 
school  of  twelve  hundred  or  more  pupils  should  have 
its  resident  physician  in  charge  of  all  such  work.  The 
university  with  its  larger  group  of  students  should  have 
a  strong  department,  calculated  to  conserve  the  health 
of  the  entire  student  body  to  the  highest  degree  pos- 
sible. The  best  knowledge  and  skill  of  men  and  women 
trained  for  such  work  should  be  available  here,  repre- 
senting the  last  word  in  appUed  science  along  all  these 
lines. 

8.     Specially  Trained  Experts  Needed 

In  order  to  get  those  properly  prepared  for  such  ser- 
vice. States  should  offer  university  courses  with  special 
inducements  for  men  and  women  to  prepare  themselves 
to  meet  the  standards  of  knowledge  and  skill  demanded. 
There  will  need  also  to  be  a  Uberal  policy  as  to  salaries 


282  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

to  be  paid  such  experts  if  anything  hke  the  ability  that 
the  situation  demands  is  to  be  available  for  this  field. 
It  is  useless  to  expect  those  who  can  readily  command 
liberal  incomes  from  ordinary  practice  to  devote  their 
time  to  this  work  in  the  schools  for  a  pittance.  When 
we  consider  the  interests  involved,  the  lives  at  stake, 
the  possible  retardations  of  children,  the  waste  in  the 
schools  because  of  neglect  of  health  conditions,  the  prog- 
ress being  made  seems  too  slow,  the  social  consciousness 
awakens  all  too  tardily. 

The  facts  show,  however,  that  educational  growth  in 
this  respect  has  been  very  rapid.  The  first  school  sys- 
tem to  give  any  attention  to  medical  inspection  was 
San  Antonio,  Tex.,  in  1890.  This  came  because  of  an 
epidemic  of  smallpox,  and  was  confined  to  the  preven- 
tion of  such  outbreaks.  It  was  Boston,  in  1894,  that 
first  undertook  anj'thing  hke  a  complete  organization 
of  this  work.  According  to  the  reports  made  by  the 
Russell  Sage  Foundation  in  191 1,  or  fifteen  years  after 
the  initiation  of  the  work  in  Boston,  out  of  1,038  cities 
reporting  there  were  443  which  had  medical  inspection 
of  schools.  Out  of  this  number  337  reported  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  inspection  to  be  under  the  board  of 
education  and  106  by  the  city  board  of  health. 

9.    Important  Recommendations  of  American  Medical 
Association 

The  American  Medical  Association,  in  a  report  of  its 
committee  on  the  medical  inspection  of  schools,  recom- 
mends two  divisions  of  inspection  as  advisable:  (i)  The 
field  of  educational  hygiene  under  boards  of  education. 
(2)  Care  and  control  of  contagious  and  infectious  dis- 
eases under  boards  of  health.  The  purposes  of  the  work 
of  educational  hygiene  under  boards  of  education  were 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  AND  HEALTH        283 

outlined  in  full  by  this  committee.  They  seem  to  be  so 
complete  and  excellent  that  they  are  here  quoted  in 
full:i 

Purposes  of  the  Work 

1.  The  establishment  of  biennial,  annual,  and,  when  necessary, 
more  frequent  skilled  physical  and  developmental  examinations 
of  pupils  and  students  by  a  staff  of  experts.  The  establishment 
of  initial  examination  of  pupils  by  the  teaching  force  of  the 
schools,  as  far  as  the  teaching  force  is  qualified,  prior  to  the 
skilled  examinations  by  experts. 

2.  By  effective  action,  based  on  the  data  of  these  examina- 
tions, to  secure  (a)  the  correction  of  physical  anomalies  and 
thus  remove  the  growth  barriers  of  children  and  youths,  and 
(b)  whenever  possible  and  practicable,  to  adjust  educational 
activities  to  meet  the  requirements  of  physical  and  mental 
health,  growth,  and  development,  and  thus  establish  a  special 
field  of  education  for  the  maintenance  of  continuous  health  and 
development  supervision  of  pupils  and  students. 

3.  To  maintain  a  scientific  and  systematic  study  of  mental 
retardation  and  mental  deviation  of  pupils  and  students  by 
skilled  examination,  and,  whenever  possible  and  practicable,  by 
skilled  training  in  special  schools. 

4.  To  establish  skilled  physical  and  health  examinations  of 
candidates  for  teachers'  positions  prior  to  their  election  to  de- 
termine vital  fitness  for  their  work,  and  thereafter  to  maintain 
continuous  supervision  of  health  and  efficiency  to  teachers  as 
related  to  the  work  of  the  schools. 

5.  (o)  To  organize  and  supervise  courses  of  technical  instruc- 
tion in  hygiene  for  pupils,  students,  and  teachers,  in  the  means 
of  conservation  of  physical  and  mental  health,  growth,  and 
development;  in  the  means  of  correction  and  prevention  of 
defects,  disease,  and  degeneracy;  (6)  whenever  necessary  for 
efficiency,  to  give  practical  and  technical  instruction  to  the 
teaching  force  of  the  schools,  while  engaged  in  teaching,  in  the 
initial  physical  and  developmental  examination  of  pupils  and 
in  the  skilled  physical  and  developmental  and  psychoclinical 
examination  of  exceptional  pupils,  abnormal  and  supernormal. 

6.  To  establish  and  maintain  well-equipped  medical  anthro- 

^  Journal  American  Medical  Association,  57,  1751-7,  Nov.  25,  1911. 


284  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

pometric  and  psychoclinical  laboratories  in  the  public  schools 
which  shall  afiFord  opportunity  and  equipment: 

(a)  For  sufficiently  skilled  medical,  anthropometric  and  psy- 
choclinical examination  of  exceptional  pupUs  and  of  all  pupils 
requiring  special  examination; 

(b)  For  such  technical  training  of  teachers  in  the  laboratory 
and  experimental  phases  of  educational  work,  connected  with  the 
physical  and  mental  examination  of  pupils,  in  clinical  psychol- 
ogy and  in  experimental  pedagogy  as  is  essential  for  the  intelli- 
gent handling  of  pupils; 

(c)  For  essential  work  in  hygiene  and  sanitation. 

7.  To  exercise  expert  sanitary  supervision  in  the  planning  and 
maintenance  of  school  buildings  and  grounds. 

8.  To  bring  about  the  establishment  of  dental  and  medical 
clinics  for  pupils  whose  parents  are  financially  unable  to  provide 
essential  medical  and  dental  aid. 

9.  Whenever  possible  and  practicable,  to  co-operate  with 
State,  county,  and  city  health  officers  in  the  detection  of  and 
reporting  of  contagious  diseases. 

10.  Each  department  of  educational  hygiene  to  constitute  a 
bureau  of  practical  investigation  and  research  in  educational 
hygiene,  and  as  such  to  co-operate  with  the  State  bureaus  of 
educational  hygiene  whose  functions  will  or  ought  to  be  the 
organization  and  supervision  of  State-wide  work  and  investiga- 
tion in  this  special  field  of  education — looking  forward  to  the 
establishment  also  of  a  national  bureau  of  educational  hygiene. 

An  approximate  grouping  of  pupils,  based  on  the  data  of 
physical  and  developmental  examinations  which  ought  to  follow 
the  examination  of  pupils  and  students,  i.  Those  for  whom 
medical  and  dental  aid  is  essential.  2.  Those  whose  respira- 
tory or  circulatory  systems  are  defective  or  are  poorly  devel- 
oped, for  whom  a  larger  amount  of  out-of-door  life  and  physical 
activity  is  essential,  or  other  modification  of  school  activities 
necessary.  3.  Those  whose  nervous  systems  are  defective  or 
poorly  developed  and  who  require  an  unusual  amount  of  out- 
of-door  life,  physical  activity,  special  care,  and  skilled  training. 
4.  The  segregation  of  pupils  requiring  an  unusual  amount  of 
physical  activity  for  possible  mental  growth — both  sexes.  5. 
Segregation  of  pupils  of  truancy  and  criminal  tendencies,  or 
otherwise  showing  more  or  less  degeneracy,  and  assignment  to 
special  schools  with  special  training.     6.  Segregation  of  men- 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  AND   HEALTH        285 

tally  defective  pupils  and  assignment  to  special  schools.  7. 
The  segregation  of  supernormal  pupils  and  assignment  to  special 
schools.  8.  As  far  as  practicable,  the  grouping  of  pupils  in 
accordance  with  development  age. 

In  this  programme,  school  nurses  are  assistants  to  the  staff. 
Their  field  work  is  essentially  as  follows: 

To  assist  members  of  the  staff  in  the  skilled  examination  of 
pupils  and  otherwise  as  assistance  is  needed;  to  assist  teachers 
in  making  preliminary  surveys  of  their  pupils  and  in  giving  ini- 
tial examinations,  notifying  parents  of  essential  needs  of  pupils, 
etc.;  visiting  parents  and  in  all  justifiable  ways  establishing 
effective  co-operation  between  home  and  school.  Further,  the 
function  of  the  school  nurse  is  that  of  the  social  educator  in  the 
field  of  hygiene.  As  such,  the  work  of  the  school  nurse  is  one 
of  high  order. 

The  staff  of  experts,  the  teaching  force  of  the  schools,  and 
school  nurses,  working  from  the  standpoint  of  education,  form 
an  educational  corps  to  secure  the  effective  co-operation  of  home, 
school,  and  school  authorities  in  meeting  the  requirements  of  the 
physical  and  mental  health  and  growth  of  pupils.  When  edu- 
cational means  fail,  the  law  must  remedy  instances  of  neglect 
of  health  and  growth  of  children. 

Each  department  of  educational  hygiene  should  act,  as  far 
as  practicable  and  consistent  with  the  required  established 
work,  as  a  bureau  of  investigation  and  research. 

The  functions  of  departments  of  educational  hygiene  are  two- 
fold: I.  Carrying  out  certain  established  work  of  the  schools. 
2.  Investigation  and  research  of  problems  of  health  and  devel- 
opment, of  clinical  psychology  and  of  experimental  pedagogy. 

Two  classes  of  experts  stand  out  as  pre-eminently  qualified 
for  work  in  this  special  field  of  education:  i.  The  psychologist 
educator.  An  expert  in  child  hygiene,  in  educational  and  clinical 
psychology,  and  in  practical  experimental  pedagogy;  skilled  in 
physical  and  mental  diagnosis  of  normal  and  abnormal  growth 
and  development  and  having  a  knowledge  of  elementary  medi- 
cine; a  thoroughly  trained  broad-gauged  expert  in  education. 
2.  The  skilled  physician  who  has  had  sufficient  training  and 
acquaintance  with  educational  work. 

Your  committee,  therefore,  joins  in  a  recommendation  al- 
ready made  by  Doctor  Terman,  of  the  department  of  education 
of  Leland  Stanford  University,  essentially  as  follows:  That  steps 


286  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

be  taken  to  bring  about  a  conference  of  representatives  from 
the  United  States  department  (bureau)  of  education,  the  Na- 
tional Education  Association,  the  American  Medical  Association, 
the  American  Institute  of  Homoeopathy  and  other  national  medi- 
cal associations  and  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation  for  child  wel- 
fare, which  committee,  after  joint  consideration  of  the  problems 
involved,  shall  formulate  and  recommend  alternative  systems  of 
educational  hygiene  which  in  time  would  be  accepted  as  stand- 
ard requirements  in  this  special  field  of  education. 

10.    Legislation  Providing  for  Medical  Inspection 

The  department  of  child  hygiene  of  the  Russell  Sage 
Foundation  has  done  and  is  doing  a  great  work  in  helpn 
ing  to  bring  about  better  conditions  for  school  children 
as  regards  health  and  general  sanitary  conditions. 
States  are  coming  to  realize  the  need  of  definite  action 
in  regard  to  these  things.  Each  year  legislation  occurs 
somewhere  placing  emphasis  on  playgrounds,  medical 
inspection,  sanitary  buildings — one  and  all  of  these. 
The  sanitary  building  laws  of  Ohio  and  Indiana  passed 
in  191 1  are  good  illustrations. 

Legislation  providing  for  medical  inspection  accord- 
ing to  statistics  furnished  by  the  Russell  Sage  Founda- 
tion^ for  191 2  was  established  in  nineteen  States  and  the 
District  of  Columbia.  Of  these,  seven  States  have  man- 
datory laws,  ten  permissive,  and  the  other  two  States 
and  District  of  Columbia  have  regulations  effective  with 
the  same  force  as  law.  The  following  statement  from 
the  same  source  is  a  good  description  of  the  provisions 
such  laws  should  contain:  "Every  such  law  should  make 
provision  for  frequent  inspections  of  children  by  duly 
qualified  school  physicians  to  detect  and  exclude  cases 
of  contagious  disease.     It  should  provide  for  examina- 

1  "A  Comparative  Study  of  Public-School  Systems  in  the  Forty-Eight 
States,"  1912,  p.  31. 


PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  AND  HEALTH        287 

tions  of  all  the  children  by  school  doctors  to  detect  any 
physical  defects  which  may  prevent  the  children  from 
receiving  the  full  benefit  of  their  school  work,  or  which 
may  require  that  the  work  be  modified  to  avoid  injury 
to  the  child.  It  should  empower  school  physicians  to 
conduct  examinations  of  teachers  and  janitors,  and 
make  regular  inspections  of  buildings,  premises,  and 
drinking  water,  to  insure  their  sanitary  condition." 

II.    The  Playground  Movement 

No  less  important  as  a  conservator  of  the  health  and 
vigor  of  school  children  is  the  playground  movement. 
There  now  exists  in  this  country  a  Playground  and  Rec- 
reation Association  of  America.  The  chief  aim  of  this 
organization  is  to  act  as  a  prcfjaganda  for  more  and  bet- 
ter play  and  recreation  facilities  for  both  children  and 
adults.  At  the  1911  meeting  of  this  association  it  was 
reported  that  22  cities,  employing  643  workers,  were 
actively  engaged  in  playground  work,  and  that  in  the 
12  months  preceding  about  $3,000,000  was  spent  in  184 
cities  for  the  improvement  and  establishment  of  play- 
grounds. 

Another  indication  of  growth  in  the  direction  we  are 
discussing  is  seen  in  recent  legislation.  In  1911  Indiana 
passed  laws  providing  for  public  playgrounds,  baths,  and 
comfort  stations  in  first-class  cities.  Kansas  provided  a 
tax  for  parks  and  public  playgrounds  in  cities.  Massa- 
chusetts established  supervision  of  sports  on  school  play- 
grounds. Michigan  provided  for  physical  training  in 
normal  schools  and  city  districts;  the  formation  of  cor- 
porations for  maintaining  playgrounds;  and  permission 
for  districts  to  maintain  school  gymnasiums.  Minne- 
sota provided  for  parks  and  playgrounds  in  cities.  New 
Hampshire  permitted   town  appropriations  for  public 


288  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

playgrounds.  Ohio  made  it  possible  for  boards  of  edu- 
cation to  secure  playgrounds.  Pennsylvania  provided 
for  boards  of  recreation  in  first-class  cities.  Rhode 
Island  established  public  playgrounds  in  Providence. 
Wisconsin  made  provision  for  physical  training  in  cities 
and  in  normal  schools  and  training-schools  for  teachers; 
and  for  school  boards  in  cities  to  maintain  gymnasiums, 
playgrounds,  baths,  etc.  Thus  it  appears  that  this  coun- 
try, following  the  example  of  leading  European  countries, 
is  rapidly  awakening  to  the  needs  of  our  situation  along 
lines  of  public  recreation  and  especially  in  our  schools. 

12.     The  School  Should  Supervise  the  Play 

It  will  be  seen  that  work  so  closely  related  to  the  in- 
structional work  of  the  schools — in  fact,  constituting  a 
part  of  the  instruction  itself — will  be  much  more  effective, 
more  completely  co-operative  when  administered  under 
boards  of  education  than  when  under  separate  boards. 
Where  it  is  designed,  however,  to  combine  recreation 
for  school  children  with  that  provided  for  adults,  it 
seems  apparent  that  a  separate  management  should  be 
provided.  The  sentiment  of  those  who  have  closely 
studied  the  subject  seems  to  favor  a  distinct  treatment 
of  the  problem  for  children  and  youth  as  a  part  of  the 
work  of  the  school.  Such,  indeed,  has  long  been  the 
attitude  of  colleges  and  universities. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
THE  CURRICULA  OF  THE  SCHOOLS 

I.    Sequence  in  Education 

All  learning  of  the  schools,  of  whatever  grade,  is  re- 
lated. It  simply  represents  the  sum  total  of  race  ac- 
complishment in  acquiring  useful  arts,  in  setting  up 
institutions,  and  in  organizing  systems  of  thought  with 
reference  to  various  aspects  of  nature  and  of  human 
life  individually  and  in  association.  In  this  it  consti- 
tutes a  progression.  Hence,  practically  all  there  is  of 
sequence  in  the  school  processes  is  determined  by  the 
order  of  this  progression.  Briefly  summarized,  this  se- 
quence would  run  somewhat  as  follows: 

(i)  The  school  arts,  such  as  language,  drawing,  simple 
construction;  forming  habits  of  observation 
and  of  arranging  and  recording  results  of  ob- 
servation; numbering  and  classifying. 

(2)  Simple  thought  processes,  experimenting;   learn- 

ing how  to  study  world,  race,  and  national 
movements;  extending  language  study  to  those 
of  other  races;  learning  how  to  interpret  nat- 
ural phenomena  in  terms  of  generalized  for- 
mulas or  principles;  drawing,  color  work,  and 
construction  as  applied  to  the  arts  of  life. 

(3)  Pushing  out  to  some  frontier  of  human  knowledge; 

reorganizing  thought  systems  in  harmony  with 
289 


290  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

the  progress  made;  arranging  and  applying 
groups  of  principles  in  the  carrying  forward  of 
all  human  projects,  as  in  (a)  agriculture,  (b) 
commerce,  (c)  the  mechanic  arts,  (d)  jurispru- 
dence, (e)  medicine  and  surgery,  (/)  education 
and  social  betterment,  (g)  government,  (h)  re- 
ligion; extending  knowledge  and  mastery  of 
the  expressional  arts. 

Here  we  have  given  the  basis  for  the  three  general 
groupings  of  an  educational  system,  assuming  all  condi- 
tions normal  and  regular.  In  actual  operation  we  find 
various  limitations  to  this  progression  as  related  to  in- 
dividuals— ^^limitations  as  to  individual  capacity,  eco- 
nomic conditions,  environment,  or  inclination.  As  a  re- 
sult, at  each  stage  provision  should  doubtless  be  made 
for  the  acquisition,  in  a  more  intensive  form,  of  some 
skill  or  knowledge,  or  both,  which  shall  equip  such 
handicapped  individuals  with  the  ability  to  sustain 
themselves  without  becoming  a  social  charge  or  a  social 
menace.  This  takes  no  account  of  pathological  cases 
demanding  special  remedial  treatment  rather  than  the 
ordinary  educative  processes  of  the  school.  In  her  work 
with  special  classes  in  the  city  of  Newark,  N.  J.,  the 
supervisor  of  this  department  finds  that  by  the  appli- 
cation of  the  Binet-Simon  tests  there  are  frequently  left 
on  her  hands  children  for  whom  education  can  do  prac- 
tically nothing.  Perhaps  there  is  no  better  way  than 
through  the  experience  of  the  school  for  defectives  to 
differentiate  and  segregate  these  pathological  cases. 

2.    Interdependence  of  the  Three  Stages  of  Education 

In  these  three  successive  stages  of  progression,  rep- 
resenting the  elementary,  middle,  and  higher  processes 


THE  CURRICULA  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  291 

of  education,  each  higher  step  is  dependent  upon  the 
ones  below  it,  while  often  one  of  the  chief  stimuli  for 
acquiring  the  earlier  steps  is  found  in  those  steps  higher 
up.  The  whole  system  needs,  therefore,  to  be  so  co- 
ordinated as  to  admit  of  the  free  action  of  all  stimuli, 
whether  acting  from  below  upward  or  drawing  from 
above  upon  those  below.  As  the  streams  flow  down 
from  the  mountains,  spreading  into  the  valleys  and 
across  the  plains  to  nourish  the  vast  and  varied  growths 
of  a  continent's  vegetation,  so,  in  a  sense,  should  there 
flow  down  from  the  frontiers  of  human  research  into 
the  hidden  truths  of  nature  and  of  human  life  streams 
of  refreshing  knowledge  to  quicken  and  transform  all 
the  arts  and  institutions  of  man  into  ever  better  and 
more  highly  perfected  types. 

3.    Basis  for  Organization  of  Educational  Institutions 

Such  a  conception  of  education  presupposes  a  scheme 
of  organization  for  its  administration  such  that  provi- 
sion shall  be  made  for  the  dissemination  and  application 
of  all  useful  learning  among  the  out-of-school  classes  as 
well  as  to  those  who  are  of  school  age.  How  else  are 
we  to  make  any  real  progress  in  the  fundamental  arts 
and  processes  which  underlie  and  vitalize  all  human  in- 
terests? This  modern  way  of  viewing  the  educational 
situation  gives  quite  a  different  significance  to  the  work 
of  our  schools  and  colleges.  Instead  of  following  a  tradi- 
tion as  we  have  been  doing  until  now,  we  are  beginning 
to  look  about  us  in  order  to  discover,  if  possible,  the 
most  direct  lines  of  relationship  and  contact  of  what- 
ever we  undertake  to  teach  with  the  real,  essential,  well- 
rounded  human  life  and  action.  Night  schools,  schools 
for  special  classes,  extension  courses,  correspondence  in- 


292  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

struction,  expert  commissions,  and  advisory  boards  are 
some  of  the  results  already  observable. 

May  we  not  justly  say  that  it  is  the  chief  end  and 
aim  of  public  education  thus  to  provide  for  the  highest 
possible  well-being  of  all  classes  of  people  of  whatever 
calhng  or  social  status  they  may  be,  each  in  accordance 
with  his  ability  to  acquire  and  to  use?  It  follows,  then, 
that  science  and  the  results  of  scientific  research,  whether 
it  be  in  regard  to  material  things,  life  as  manifested  in 
nature  generally  or  human  life  as  it  appears  in  man's 
social  relations,  should  be  capable  of  appropriation  by 
the  masses  as  far  down  as  possible.  In  other  words,  we 
should  begin  as  early  as  possible  in  the  training  of  the 
young  to  turn  over  to  them  the  fundamental  truths  in 
regard  to  all  phenomena  whether  natural  or  social.  To 
do  this  it  becomes  quite  evident  that  all  educational 
instrumentalities  must  essentially  work  in  harmony,  and 
that  the  organization  of  our  school  curricula  must  be 
such  as  to  lead  most  directly  and  with  a  maximum 
economy  of  time  to  the  ends  sought. 

What,  then,  should  be  the  basis  for  organization  into 
particular  types  of  the  various  kinds  of  educational  in- 
stitutions needed  in  the  accompHshment  of  the  purposes 
and  aims  of  an  efficient  system  of  popular  education  in 
a  country  like  our  own?  This  brings  us  to  a  difficult 
point  at  which,  if  we  should  err  in  our  ultimate  differ- 
entiation of  types,  we  might,  according  to  the  opinions 
of  some,  bring  about  results  disastrous  to  our  cherished 
ideals  of  democracy.  Chief  among  these  ideals  are  those 
of  equal  opportunity  to  all  and  the  efficiency  of  the 
individual  in  the  social  group.  If  we  organize  schools 
in  t3^es  varying  in  accordance  with  the  needs  of  the  dif- 
ferent industries  and  professions,  shall  we  not  bring  about 
a  social  stratification  with  a  condition  far  removed  from 


THE  CURRICULA  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  293 

our  idea  of  equality  of  opportunity?  We  frequently  hear 
it  said  that  the  school  should  minister  to  the  pecuhar 
needs  of  the  community  which  it  serves.  Do  we  mean 
by  this  that  rural  schools  should  be  solely  for  those  who 
are  to  practise  the  rural  arts?  or  that  city  schools  are 
solely  for  those  interested  in  commerce,  or  the  mechanic 
arts,  or  professional  work,  each  varying  in  accordance 
with  the  extent  to  which  any  one  or  more  of  these  con- 
ditions may  prevail?  Or  should  a  cosmopolitan  scheme 
of  education  be  furnished  alike  to  both  country  and 
city  so  as  to  admit  of  that  free  passing  from  one  to  the 
other  according  as  ability  or  inclination  on  the  part  of 
the  individual  might  seem  to  direct?  Is  not  this  what 
we  really  mean  when  we  talk  about  equal  opportunity? 

4.    Problem  of  Differentiation  of  Pupils*  Work 

But  if  we  are  correct  in  this  latter  inference,  then  there 
is  something  more  to  be  provided  for  in  our  system  of 
schools  than  merely  to  make  it  possible  that  each  pre- 
pare according  to  ability  or  inclination.  For  how  is  the 
youth  to  know,  or  how  are  we  to  know,  his  pecuhar 
tastes  and  capacities,  in  order  that  he  may  be  directed 
along  the  hnes  of  inclination  or  abiUty?  It  seems  evi- 
dent that  somewhere  in  the  scheme,  not  too  early  to 
be  premature,  yet  not  too  late  to  catch  him  in  school, 
there  must  be  a  way  and  the  means  for  testing  each 
individual  at  least  in  the  Hght  of  what  we  know  to  be 
the  fundamental  requirements  of  each  general  field  of 
human  endeavor.  We  should  probably  never  be  able 
to  differentiate  successfully,  in  this  respect,  as  among 
the  various  mechanic  arts  or  the  professions;  but  we 
surely  might  do  so  as  between  these  larger  general 
groups,  or  even  between  individuals  of  either  group  when 


294  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

the  training  in  skill  and  knowledge  required  is  distinctly 
different  in  type. 

Generally  speaking,  we  may  safely  dismiss  this  process 
of  differentiation  to  the  period  of  adolescence,  or  to  the 
second  of  the  three  periods  previously  suggested.  This 
amoimts  to  saying  that  in  the  elementary  grades,  up 
to  and  including  the  sixth,  no  attention  need  be  given 
to  inclination  or  preference  so  far  as  they  may  relate  to 
any  particular  choice  of  an  occupation.  Indeed,  there  is 
abundance  of  work  peculiarly  adapted  to  this  period 
which  should  be  had  by  all  in  order  that  each  may  enter 
fairly  and  with  equal  preparedness  upon  the  lines  of 
work  in  which  he  is  to  seek  to  discover  himself  or  be 
discovered  by  his  teachers. 

The  vocationally  selective  courses  offered  in  some  of 
our  high  schools  mark  a  certain  progress  along  this  line 
of  differentiating  pupils  according  to  their  respective 
abilities  and  inclinations  as  they  may  be  found  to  be 
more  or  less  clearly  defined.  But  what  are  we  to  say 
in  regard  to  the  external  forces  expressed  in  social  needs 
and  quite  as  important  in  determining  what  the  school 
shall  undertake  to  teach?  Here  comes  in  the  social  sur- 
vey, covering  a  careful  review  of  social  demands  and 
occupations,  as  a  basis  for  indicating  the  educational 
needs  of  a  given  community. 

Recent  experience  in  New  York  City  in  connection 
with  the  vocational  guidance  survey  conducted  by  Miss 
Barrows  is  of  interest  in  this  connection.  This  survey 
was  undertaken  primarily  as  a  means  of  determining 
what  there  was  for  children  to  do  who,  for  economic 
reasons,  must  leave  school  as  early  as  possible  and  go 
to  work.  The  outcome  seems  to  point  definitely  to  a 
demand  for  vocational  training  rather  than  for  an  or- 
ganized effort  to  aid  such  children  in  getting  suitable 


THE  CURRICULA  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  295 

jobs.  To  express  it  in  Miss  Barrows's  own  words :  ^ 
"What  the  children  want  is  vocational  training.  The 
kernel  of  truth  in  this  popular  movement  for  vocational 
guidance  is  the  need  of  vocational  training  for  children. 
Vocational  guidance  should  mean  guidance  for  training, 
not  guidance  for  Jobs."  Carefully  conducted  surveys 
of  industrial  and  other  social  conditions  of  a  commu- 
nity should,  if  properly  interpreted,  give  much  useful  and 
definite  information  desirable  as  a  means  by  which  to 
determine  what  subjects  and  exercises  a  school  should 
offer  in  order  to  become  most  directly  effective  in  serving 
the  social  needs  of  the  community  to  which  it  ministers. 
It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  if  all 
are  to  be  at  their  best  in  service  it  may  be  necessary 
for  some,  perhaps  many,  to  prepare  for  lines  of  work 
scarcely  represented  at  all  in  the  community  where  they 
are  being  educated. 

5.    Organizing  and  Adapting  Schools  to  Varying  Needs 

If,  then,  we  are  agreed  that  the  truly  democratic  type 
of  education  is  cosmopolitan,  our  questioning  now  turns 
to  the  manner  in  which  best  to  organize  this  type  so  as 
to  adapt  it  to  the  needs  of  the  different  situations  to  be 
found  in  a  country  so  varied  as  to  population  and  in- 
dustries. 

There  are  certain  typical  and  generally  recognized 
situations  which  will  serve  us  here.  These  are  (i)  the 
rural  schools,  including  the  one-room  country  school 
and  the  schools  of  the  numerous  agricultural  villages; 
(2)  city  schools;   (3)  colleges,  universities,  technological 

'  "  Report  of  the  Vocational  Guidance  Survey,"  by  Alice  P.  Barrows, 
Bulletin  no.  9,  Public  Eklucation  Association.  City  of  New  York,  1912, 
p.  14. 


296  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

and  professional  schools;    (4)  schools  for  the  defective 
classes,  as  those  for  the  blind,  deaf,  and  feeble-minded. 

At  no  point  in  the  system  does  it  appear  so  difficult 
to  secure  the  cosmopolitan  school  as  in  the  case  of  the 
rural  districts.  In  the  old-time,  one-teacher  school  it 
was  quite  possible,  when  the  teacher  knew  the  art  of 
teaching,  to  teach  the  few  subjects  required  very  efifec- 
tively.  With  the  great  increase  in  the  number  of  things 
which  we  expect  the  schools  to  do,  it  has  now  become 
practically  impossible  for  one  teacher  to  handle  all  the 
work.  At  the  same  time,  the  schools  are,  in  most  in- 
stances, relatively  very  small.  In  fact,  there  are  often 
too  few  pupils  to  enable  the  teacher  to  arouse  enthu- 
siasm in  school  work. 

The  only  remedy  for  this  situation  seems  to  be  in 
bringing  the  schools  of  several  districts  together  for  ele- 
mentary training  and  then  establishing  at  a  central  point 
in  each  group  of  these  consolidated  schools  a  high  school. 
Such  a  group,  for  purposes  of  instruction,  should  con- 
stitute a  unit  for  supervision.  In  this  manner  a  com- 
plete and  properly  co-ordinated  programme  of  studies 
and  activities  could  be  worked  out  and  kept  in  effec- 
tive operation.  The  principal  of  the  central  high  school 
could  readily  assume  this  local  supervisory  function, 
while  the  county  superintendent,  operating  under  a 
county  board  of  education,  would  have  general  super- 
vision over  all.  The  arrangement  of  such  districting 
into  convenient  groups  would  be  much  better  accom- 
plished if  left  to  the  county  board  with  the  expert  assis- 
tance of  the  county  superintendent,  as  has  been  pre- 
viously suggested.^ 

^  See  chap.  VIL 


THE  CURRICULA  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  297 

6.    Conditions  Needed  for  Rural  Schools 

The  dominant  note  in  such  a  scheme  of  education 
would  naturally  be  found  in  rural  rather  than  urban 
interests.  At  the  same  time,  it  should  be  possible  for 
the  pupil  whose  inchnations  point  to  a  business  or 
professional  career  to  find  as  good  preparation  available 
in  the  home  district,  as  far  as  elementary  and  high-school 
training  goes,  as  could  be  found  in  any  city-school  sys- 
tem. By  such  a  plan  the  high  school  would  be  made  as 
free  to  our  country  boys  and  girls  as  to  their  city  cousins, 
a  consummation  now  long  overdue  in  most  of  the  rural 
districts  of  America.  An  elementary  training  is  a  great 
blessing  as  far  as  it  goes;  but  it  attains  fruition,  so  far 
as  school  training  is  concerned,  only  when  followed  at 
least  by  a  high-school  course.  The  former  does  little 
more  than  prepare  one  to  become  educated;  the  latter 
gives  a  good  start  in  an  actual  education.  Thus  it  is 
that  the  high  school  has  become  an  inseparable  part  of 
our  common-school  system. 

This  whole  problem  is  as  much  a  social  and  economic 
one  as  it  is  educational.  Much  educational  work  must 
be  done  among  farmers  before  ever  any  adequate  provi- 
sion can  be  made  for  modern  rural  schools,  so  as  to  make 
them  in  every  way  at  least  equal  to  those  of  the  city, 
and  with  a  natural  environment  far  surpassing  anything 
which  the  cities  can  provide.  According  to  Foght '  we 
are  now  ''spending  $33.01  on  the  city  child's  education 
for  every  $13.17  on  the  rural  child's."  In  some  Cana- 
dian provinces-  the  government  offers  subsidies  as  an 
inducement  to  districts  to  consohdate.  Why  would 
this  not  be  a  good  thing  for  the  States  to  do?     Cer- 

'  H.  W.  Foght,  "The  American  Rural  School,"  1911,  Macmillan,  p.  18. 
*  U.  S.  Com.  Report,  1907,  I,  238. 


298  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

tainly,  if  we  are  ever  to  secure  the  development,  in  any 
efficient  way,  of  agricultural  education  in  our  rural 
schools,  we  must  first  secure  a  more  co-operative  and 
compact  organization,  such  as  consolidation  makes  pos- 
sible. And  all  this  means  a  change  in  the  social  and 
economic  outlook  of  the  people  of  our  rural  communities. 
The  following  paragraph  taken  from  the  report  of  the 
Michigan  State  commission  on  industrial  and  agricul- 
tural education'^  sets  forth  fairly  the  situation  with  refer- 
ence to  the  necessity  for  widening  the  scope  of  educa- 
tion in  the  rural  schools:  "The  one-room  school  has 
performed  a  large  part  of  the  education  of  the  people  in 
the  past;  but  with  the  changed  conditions  in  the  coun- 
try and  improvements  in  all  forms  of  industry,  and  es- 
pecially in  agriculture,  such  a  school  has  become  less 
and  less  able  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  present  genera- 
tion in  preparing  it  for  life's  duties.  In  these  schools 
we  find  a  very  small  amount  of  apparatus,  small  school- 
yards and  only  one  instructor,  and  it  is,  therefore,  prac- 
tically impossible  for  the  rural  school  to  enter  upon  the 
field  of  vocational  instruction.  The  most  that  it  can 
possibly  do  is  through  the  introduction  of  elementary 
forms  of  hand-work,  domestic  art,  nature  study,  and  the 
elements  of  agriculture,  to  develop  a  respect  for  voca- 
tion. All  these  subjects  must  be  taught  as  incidental 
because  of  the  absolute  necessity  of  training  the  chil- 
dren in  what  may  be  called  the  regular  or  academic 
subjects,  such  training  being  designed  to  give  them  the 
power  to  gather  thought  from  the  printed  page  and  to 
make  such  computations  as  are  necessary  in  the  every- 
day affairs  of  life.  Of  these  things  the  rural  school 
should  give  to  every  child  a  very  definite  possession. 

'  Michigan  State  Com.  on  Ind.  and  Agr.  Education,  Report.    Lansing, 
19 lo,  pp.  28-29. 


THE  CURRICULA  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  299 

If  the  rural  school  does  its  elementary  work  well  it  may 
have  served  its  purpose,  but  it  cannot  and  will  not  fully 
meet  the  needs  of  the  rural  population." 

Another  matter  which  calls  for  serious  consideration 
in  organizing  the  instructional  work  of  rural  schools  is 
how  to  make  provision  for  some  training  for  those 
young  men,  more  advanced  in  years,  who  are  early  with- 
drawn from  the  schools  to  work  on  the  farms.  The  es- 
tablishment of  free  rural  high  schools  for  all  will  do  much, 
of  itself,  toward  solving  this  difficulty.  There  will  still 
be  found  necessary,  however,  short  courses  for  winter 
months,  if  not,  also,  night  courses  for  such  boys  and 
young  men.  The  one-room,  one-teacher  school  cannot 
be  expected  to  provide  for  this;  but  the  consolidated 
schools,  with  the  central  high  school  for  each  group,  could 
find  a  way  to  make  provision  for  this  very  important 
class  who  are  now  to  be  foimd  continuously  out  of  school. 

7.    Town  and  City  Orgamzation 

With  the  schools  of  the  towns  and  cities  the  situa- 
tion in  some  respects  is  much  better.  They  are  better 
equipped  materially  and  the  organization  for  purposes 
of  instruction  is  more  complete.  The  teachers  are  usu- 
ally better  prepared  and  the  number  employed  is  rea- 
sonably adequate.  Frequently,  however,  there  seems  to 
be  great  waste  in  the  supervisory  forces.  In  many  cases 
the  men  employed  are  not  properly  trained.  They  do 
not  know  how  to  go  about  the  real  work  of  supervision. 
In  other  cases  they  are  kept  too  busy  with  mechanical 
or  clerical  duties,  or  with  class  teaching,  to  be  able  to 
devote  any  time  to  the  essential  work  of  the  office. 

In  spite  of  such  limitations  the  city  school  systems 
have  made  good  progress  in  the  organization  of  the 
materials  of  education.     In  their  elementary  and  high 


300  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

schools  may  usually  be  found  a  very  broad  and  com- 
plete representation  of  subjects  for  study  and  various 
other  exercises  for  school  training,  including  music, 
drawing,  and  art  work,  physical  education,  the  manual 
arts  and  household  arts,  and  economics.  The  one  thing 
lacking  in  the  most  marked  degree  is  provision  for  train- 
ing in  real  vocational  lines.  In  order  to  supply  this  de- 
ficiency successfully  it  will  probably  be  necessary  to  re- 
construct the  organization  of  the  programme  and  the 
consequent  distribution  of  pupils  on  some  such  basis  as 
the  six-four-four  plan. 

8.    The  Problem  as  It  Appears  in  Colleges  and 
Universities 

In  the  case  of  colleges  and  universities  may  be  noted 
a  lack  of  differentiation  between  the  two  rather  distinct 
functions  which  these  institutions  clearly  represent  in 
the  field  of  education — training  for  professional  service 
and  training  for  research  work  on  the  frontiers  of  a  par- 
ticular department  of  learning.  The  one  calls  for  strong 
teaching  abiHty  on  the  part  of  the  instructor  and  for  a 
certain  segregated  organization  of  those  representing  and 
imbibing  in  common  the  ideals  of  the  profession  which 
they  would  pursue.  The  other  requires  absolute  fealty 
to  a  given,  circumscribed  field  of  learning,  with  aU  the 
equipment  and  scholarly  traits  of  the  specialist.  It 
seems,  evident  in  these  two  cases  that  the  organization 
of  materials  should  differ  somewhat  even  as  the  aim  and 
the  method  of  approach  should  differ.  Further,  there 
should  be  somewhere  in  the  first  group,  or  perhaps  de- 
tached as  a  third  line,  a  type  of  instructors  and  an  organi- 
zation of  materials  prepared  to  tone  up  and  lead  forward 
those  who  have  passed  from  the  university  into  the  field 
of  life's  activities.     By  some  such  means  there  might  be 


THE  CURRICXJLA  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  301 

carried  to  them  new  knowledge  and  fresh  inspiration 
from  the  work  going  on  at  the  frontiers  of  the  learning 
process. 

Certain  it  is  that  in  these  more  advanced  courses  of 
training  the  curricula  should  be  planned  somewhat  def- 
initely. They  should  lead  either  to  the  acquisition  of 
professional  training  sufficient  to  prepare  the  individual 
most  effectively  for  civic  usefulness  and  social  service 
in  his  chosen  line  or  to  the  field  of  research  work. 
Under  the  former  group  should  come  the  lawyer,  the 
surgeon,  the  engineer,  the  agriculturist,  the  educator, 
the  journalist,  the  expert  in  various  business  depart- 
ments; imder  the  latter,  government  experts  studying 
new  problems  afield,  and  university  professors  working 
in  libraries  and  laboratories  and  also  afield,  in  all  the 
various  departments  of  human  interests  and  human 
needs  that  are  open  to  such  betterment  as  the  discovery 
of  new  knowledge,  new  principles,  or  new  combinations 
of  physical  forces  may  bring. 

9.    Requirements  in  the  Case  of  Defectives 

The  organization  for  the  training  of  defectives  pre- 
sents a  special  field,  requires  a  treatment  pathological 
rather  than  normal.  There  are  those  morally  defective 
to  be  trained  to  habits  of  right  hving  and  right  social 
attitudes.  Experience  seems  to  show  that  training  to 
some  useful  service  more  in  the  order  of  trades  furnishes 
the  best  basis  for  the  inculcation  of  sound  principles  and 
the  formation  of  such  habits  as  are  calculated  to  restore 
this  unsocial  element. 

The  physically  defective  who  require  a  special  train- 
ing are  chiefly  those  who  are  deaf,  blind,  or  feeble-minded. 
For  each  of  these  classes,  in  order  to  render  them  capable 
of  caring  for  themselves,  even  partially,  there  is  neces- 


302  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

sary  that  form  of  education  which  shall  most  nearly 
overcome  or  furnish  a  substitute  for  that  which  is  lack- 
ing. Such  training  requires  the  segregation  of  these 
classes  in  schools  specially  equipped  and  with  teachers 
specially  trained  and  peculiarly  fitted  for  doing  this 
work. 

10.    Programme  of  the  Elementary  School 

But  what  as  to  the  content  of  the  programme  of 
studies?  What  materials  should  be  drawn  from  nature 
and  what  from  history,  and  in  what  order?  In  the  ele- 
mentary school  the  basis  for  training  in  the  school  arts 
should  come,  first  of  all,  from  local  historical  materials, 
such  as  home  life  and  customs;  industries,  with  some- 
thing of  primitive  types  to  aid  in  developing  a  historical 
perspective;  local  institutions  and  the  organization  of 
society  for  purposes  of  government  and  for  public  ser- 
vice. Then  there  should  be  much  drawn  from  litera- 
ture, including  biographies,  and  from  history  told  in 
story  form  or  as  very  simple  narrative.  Art  should 
also  contribute  its  historical  side. 

Next  there  should  be  liberal  studies  from  nature,  be- 
ginning, perhaps,  with  familiar  animals  and  plants,  to- 
gether with  other  and  general  aspects  of  nature.  Along 
with  the  development  of  the  expressional  arts,  especial 
care  should  be  taken  in  the  training  of  the  observational 
powers  and  the  formation  of  habits  of  accuracy  in  re- 
cording or  organizing  results  of  observations. 

II.    Programme  of  the  High  School 

As  this  work  advances  into  the  high-school  grades  its 
scope  should  gradually  enlarge  and  the  treatment  in- 
tensify. Laboratory  accessories  should  come  more  and 
more  into  use  in  the  nature  work;  while,  on  the  histori- 


THE  CURRICULA  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  303 

cal  side,  libraries,  cabinets,  charts,  and  maps  should  be- 
come important  features  as  the  work  progresses.  Foreign 
language  should  be  introduced,  especially  for  those  look- 
ing to  either  professional  careers  or  to  advanced  study 
and  research.  In  the  former  cases  modem  language,  or 
mathematics,  or  drawing  and  art  work,  or  shop  work 
should  equip  the  individual  with  whatever  accessory  arts 
may  be  prerequisites  to  entering  upon  a  particular  pro- 
fession. In  the  latter,  similar  training  should  be  had, 
after  thoughtful  determination,  in  order  to  fit  one  for 
the  various  lines  of  research  which  a  given  field  may 
seem  to  demand. 

12.    The  Weakness  of  the  Old  Order 

The  above  characterization  of  the  content  of  the  pro- 
gramme applies  chiefly  to  the  standard  recognized  ac- 
tivities of  the  schools  as  they  are  now  organized.  We 
have  already  laid  down  the  principle  that  education, 
through  the  public  schools  as  a  means,  is  for  the  purpose 
of  training  individuals  for  social  eflSciency  and  social 
betterment.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  aim  the  school 
should  instruct  children  and  youth  (a)  in  the  formation 
of  right  habits;  (b)  in  acquiring  the  skill  necessary  for 
rendering  some  service  needed  by  society  and  essential 
to  the  permanent  well-being  and  efl&ciency  of  the  indi- 
vidual; (c)  in  the  processes  and  experiences  necessary 
for  the  cultivation  of  the  mind  both  in  the  acquisition 
of  useful  knowledge  and  in  the  ability  to  think  clearly; 
(d)  in  estabUshing  the  habit  and  tendency  to  right  con- 
duct;  (e)  in  the  principles  of  good  citizenship. 

There  is  a  generally  prevalent  feeling  among  educa- 
tional people,  and,  indeed,  among  thoughtful  people  of  all 
classes,  that  in  order  to  attain  these  ends  we  are  greatly 
in  need  of  a  reorganization  of  the  materials  of  education 


304  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

as  usually  expressed  in  the  programme  of  studies  of  the 
elementary  and  secondary  schools.  Probably  no  phrase 
comes  nearer  to  expressing  what  is  generally  felt  to  be 
lacking  than  that  a  motive  is  needed.  We  try  to  do 
too  much  in  the  abstract.  We  conjure  up  materials 
from  any  and  all  sources,  materials  entirely  unrelated 
in  any  organic  sense  to  the  lives  of  children  and  youth, 
in  order  to  train  in  the  school  arts.  Most  of  the  content 
material  presented  is  from  books,  without  much  thought 
as  to  its  motivation  or  as  to  whether  or  not  the  pupils 
have  any  basis  for  interpreting  it,  or,  in  other  words, 
are  able  to  assimilate  it  in  such  a  way  as  really  to  con- 
tribute anything  toward  the  real  process  of  informing 
their  minds.  Various  ways  and  means  of  supplying 
what  is  thus  felt  to  be  lacking  have  been  tried.  Out  of 
all  the  resulting  experiences  thus  far  seems  to  come  the 
evidence  that,  where  pupils  are  provided  with  something 
to  do  that  definitely  relates  itself  to  the  every-day  in- 
terests of  life,  motive  for  their  academic  work  is  not 
lacking.  Especially  is  this  true  where  the  teachers  of 
these  academic  subjects  present  them  in  such  a  way  as 
to  indicate  their  relationship  to  human  accompUshments 
along  lines  of  action  similar  to  those  in  which  the  pupils 
are  engaged. 

All  of  this  is  in  accord  with  the  theory  of  psycholo- 
gists as  applied  to  the  learning  process.  "No  experi- 
ence is  of  importance  unless  it  is  organized,"  says  Royce, 
in  his  "Outlines  of  Psychology."  ^  But  experiences,  to 
be  organized,  need  to  be  connected  in  some  orderly 
manner  or  by  means  of  common  threads  of  interest; 
and  the  process  of  such  organization  depends,  in  child- 
hood and  youth,  chiefly  on  action  as  a  basis.  This 
same  general  idea  is  pretty  definitely  expressed  by 
'Royce,  Josiah,  "Outlines  of  Psychology,"  p.  351. 


THE  CURRICULA  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  305 

Dewey  in  his  "Moral  Principles  in  Education,"'  in  a 
discussion  of  the  manner  in  which  the  power  of  judg- 
ment is  cultivated.  "Acquiring  information,"  he  says, 
"can  never  develop  the  power  of  judgment.  .  .  .  The 
child  cannot  get  power  of  judgment  excepting  as  he  is 
continually  exercised  in  forming  and  testing  judgments. 
He  must  have  an  opportunity  to  select  for  himself,  and 
to  attempt  to  put  his  selections  into  execution,  that  he 
may  submit  them  to  the  final  test,  that  of  action." 

Again  the  same  writer,  in  discussing  the  elementary 
curriculum,  expresses  the  need  of  definite  lines  of  action 
in  a  still  more  emphatic  way  when  he  says:^  "That  the 
elementary  curriculum  is  overloaded  is  a  common  com- 
plaint. The  only  alternative  to  a  reactionary  return  to 
the  educational  traditions  of  the  past  lies  in  working 
out  the  intellectual  possibilities  resident  in  the  various 
arts,  crafts,  and  occupations,  and  reorganizing  the  cur- 
riculum accordingly.  Here,  more  than  elsewhere,  are 
found  the  means  by  which  the  blind  and  routine  experi- 
ence of  the  race  may  be  transformed  into  illuminated 
and  emancipated  experiment." 

The  fine  discriminations  in  motor  activities  which 
result  from  the  acquisition  of  skill  in  doing  are  first 
mental  before  they  become  automatic  and  habitual.  It 
is  here,  doubtless,  that  are  gained  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant points  in  the  process  of  organizing  our  experi- 
ences into  those  varied  but  closely  related  elements 
which  we  have  in  mind  when  we  refer  to  our  knowledge 
in  regard  to  any  of  the  ordinary  relations  in  life,  whether 
natural  or  institutional.     Thorndike^  thus  explains  this 

•Dewey,  John,  "Moral  Principles  in  Education,"  Riverside  Ekluca- 
tional  Monograph,  p.  55. 
*  Dewey,  John,  "How  to  Think,"  p.  169. 
'Thomdike,  E.  L.,  "Elements  of  Psychology,"  p.  300. 


306  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

process  of  the  cultivation  of  skill  through  motor  activ- 
ity: "A  skilled  movement  may  commonly  be  divided 
into  the  coarser  adjustments  with  which  it  starts  and 
the  finer  adjustments  which  come  into  play  in  response 
to  the  guiding  sensations.  .  .  .  Motor  skiU  is  thus  by 
no  means  a  matter  of  delicacy  of  movement  alone.  It 
implies  also  the  capacity  to  receive  and  attend  to  the 
fine  differences  in  sensations  which  are  the  guides  to  the 
finer  adjustments,  and,  most  important  of  all,  the  capac- 
ity to  make  connections  between  sensations  and  move- 
ments, to  eliminate  the  unnecessary  and  undesirable 
movements." 

13.    The  Element  Most  Needed  Is  an  Industrial 
"Core" 

The  trouble,  in  other  words,  with  the  school  curricu- 
lum is  not  so  much  that  it  is  overloaded,  as  Dewey  would 
express  it,  as  that  there  is  lacking  a  sufficiently  constant 
and  extensive  basis  for  the  organization,  in  connection 
with  motor  processes,  of  the  fundamental  experiences 
undertaken  to  be  set  up  in  the  minds  of  children  and 
youth  from  lessons  and  problems  that  are  only  abstrac- 
tions, without  any  basic,  concrete  relation  in  experience. 
And  it  is  just  this  lack  which  an  industrial  core  or  basis 
to  all  this  period  of  training  would  supply. 

AU  educational  experience  thus  far  tends  to  corrobo- 
rate this  point  of  view,  and  that,  too,  with  emphasis. 
Witness  the  results  obtained  in  the  education  of  the 
negro  at  Hampton  and  Tuskegee;  or  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  manual  arts  into  city  high  schools  and  agricul- 
ture into  rural  high  schools;  or  by  the  George,  Jr.,  Re- 
public and  the  various  industrial  schools  for  boys  and 
girls  who  have  started  wrong  or  sought  to  evade  the  les- 
sons of  the  strictly  academic  schools.    It  is  but  natural 


THE  CURRICULA  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  307 

that  the  query  often  arises:   Why  not  make  this  work 
prophylactic  instead  of  corrective? 

Primarily,  the  purpose  of  the  introduction  of  this  in- 
dustrial work  should  be  educational;  but  it  need  be 
none  the  less  practical  on  that  account.  And,  when  we 
come  to  the  various  ** turnout"  points  in  the  process 
of  education,  there  might  well  be  an  intensification  of 
the  industrial  or  "trade"  aspect  of  this  training.  In 
this  respect  Superintendent  Wirt  has  set  up  an  excel- 
lent example  in  the  schools  at  Gary,  Ind.  Under  en- 
tirely different  conditions  a  similar  situation  is  being 
evolved  in  many  of  our  larger  cities.  The  Los  Angeles 
schools  are  a  fine  illustration.  The  organization  of 
various  types  of  prevocational  classes  and  schools  is 
illustrative  of  the  same  movement. 

14.    Specialization  and  Adjustability 

Aside  from  the  character  of  the  industrial  work  to  be 
offered  there  can  be  little  room  for  any  suggestion,  even, 
of  specialization  before  about  the  middle  of  the  high- 
school  period.  Here  the  inclinations,  capabilities,  and 
limitations  of  the  individual  pupil  should  have  become 
sufficiently  apparent  to  make  possible  a  pretty  definite 
choice  of  the  line  of  work  to  be  pursued  and  empha- 
sized in  the  further  training  which  may  seem  practicable 
or  desirable,  both  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  individ- 
ual and  that  of  society.  In  making  this  choice,  how- 
ever, little  if  anything  else  should  weigh  other  than  the 
physical,  mental,  and  moral  capabilities  of  the  indi- 
vidual. 

Here,  again,  we  are  confronted  by  the  problem  of  wisely 
differentiating  the  materials  of  education,  as  represented 
in  the  curriculum,  so  as  to  offer  lines  of  training  to 


308  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

correspond  to  the  diflferentiations  among  pupils  and 
also  in  our  social  conditions  and  needs.  It  seems  evi- 
dent enough,  in  spite  of  the  contentions  of  those  who 
still  insist  that  the  traditional  curriculum  is  best,  that 
there  must  be  this  adjustment  of  materials  to  the  vary- 
ing educational  needs  of  the  individual  and  society. 
For  while  it  is  true  that  the  particular  applications  of 
knowledge  and  skill  to  the  affairs  of  hfe  to-day  may  give 
place  in  the  next  generation  to  an  entirely  different 
situation,  calling  for  new  knowledge  and  new  skill,  yet 
the  matter  of  interest  as  a  motive,  a  vitalizing  principle 
in  the  conventionalized  processes  of  the  school,  calls  for 
this  definite  relationship  to  the  things  that  now  are. 

This  puts  a  special  emphasis  upon  the  necessity  of 
adjustability  on  the  part  of  the  individual.  Not  the 
least  of  the  problems  of  modern  education  is  that  of 
finding  the  way  by  which  to  enable  the  individual  to 
project  himself  through  the  entire  active  period  of  life 
without  the  breakdown  that  is  likely  to  come  with  in- 
ability to  adjust  readily  to  the  changing  conditions  of 
life.  As  we  seek  to  promote  health,  and  thereby  to 
lengthen  a  man's  expectancy,  we  must  also  provide  for 
this  other  contingency  of  adjustability  in  service,  else 
it  were  better  not  to  extend  the  life  period.  The  prob- 
lem seems  to  point  definitely  to  the  need  of  those  ele- 
ments in  the  training  of  the  school  which  will  develop 
most  freely  the  power  of  initiative,  constructive  power, 
ideals. 

It  seems  probable  that,  when  the  final  sifting  and 
weighing  of  the  values  in  the  curriculum  are  accom- 
plished, if  such  a  consummation  is  possible,  there  may 
remain  elements  which  all  alike  must  have,  in  order  to 
be  properly  prepared  for  needed  adjustments.  If  such 
there  be.  then  these  will  become  the  constant  elements 


THE  CURRICULA  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  309 

of  all  our  curricula.  All  other  types  of  material  for  the 
training  of  the  schools  will  then  need  to  be  arranged, 
sequentially  and  in  accordance  with  time  requirements, 
either  in  separate  and  definite-  curricula  or  in  larger, 
variable  groups,  from  which  the  individual  may  elect 
according  to  the  purposes  and  needs  of  his  prospective 
career  in  life.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the  progress 
that  is  being  made  in  experiments  for  determining 
somewhat  definitely  the  time  factor  in  covering  the  tra- 
ditional courses  of  the  elementary  programme.  Cer- 
tainly there  is  great  need  for  the  establishment  of  a 
reliable  time  measure  of  the  pupils'  efi"ort  in  order  to 
achieve  the  purposes  of  the  teaching  and  exercises  here 
set  up.  This  is  not  to  mean  that  we  should  shorten 
the  period  preceding  the  university  training  of  an  indi- 
vidual, but  that  we  may  be  able  to  bring  him  to  it 
better  informed  and  more  skilful. 

15.    Knowledge  Lacking  of  Educational  Values 

There  is  also  much  that  remains  to  be  demonstrated, 
as  regards  the  actual  values  inherent  in  the  different 
subjects  taught,  expressed  in  terms  of  actual  results  per- 
ceivable in  the  education  of  the  individual.  Just  at 
present  there  are  lines  of  work  about  which  pretty  good 
guesses  may  be  made.  In  other  directions  varied  and 
conflicting  opinions  are  rife.  Perhaps  no  greater  single 
service  could  be  rendered  to  education  at  this  stage  than 
to  make  it  possible  to  state,  with  some  degree  of  defi- 
niteness,  the  educational  values  of  the  chief  groups  of 
materials  now  demanding  attention  in  the  schools. 


310  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 


i6.    The  Demand  Is  for  Greater  Flexibility  of  the 
Curriculum 

In  his  report  on  the  educational  aspects  of  the  public- 
school  system  of  New  York  City/  referring  to  the 
curriculum  of  the  elementary  schools,  Dr.  Frank  M. 
McMurry  calls  attention  to  the  need  of  greater  fiexi- 
biUty.  This  view  is  corroborated  by  Dr.  Paul  H. 
Hanus  in  discussing  editorially  the  ''Report  as  a  Whole." 
Such  an  expression,  and  from  such  sources,  should  ex- 
ercise a  profound  influence  on  the  future  development 
of  the  elementary-school  programme.  The  feehng  is 
altogether  too  common  that  effective  administration  calls 
for  absolute  uniformity  in  the  curricula  for  all  schools 
of  a  system,  regardless  of  local  conditions. 

In  the  programme  of  the  high  school  we  have  recourse 
to  wide  election  in  order  to  meet  this  situation.  In 
some  instances,  as  in  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  the  flexibihty 
is  further  increased  by  differentiating  the  high  schools. 
Pupils  desiring  to  emphasize  some  particular  element  in 
their  high-school  education  select  the  high  school  which 
stresses  this  line  of  work.  This  makes  the  high  school 
somewhat  less  readily  accessible  to  the  pupil;  but  it 
enables  a  particular  school  to  go  further  in  a  certain 
line  than  where  the  schools  are  all  equally  composite, 
as  in  Saint  Louis.  It  is  also  a  more  economical  way 
when  it  comes  to  the  expensive  equipment  needed  for 
the  various  technical  courses. 

Such  a  plan  of  differentiation  could  hardly  be  operated 
so  readily  in  elementary  schools.     But   certainly  it   is 

^  Report  of  Committee  on  School  Inquiry  on  Educational  Aspects  of 
the  Public  School  System,  part  II,  "Elementary  Schook,"  Frank 
M.  McMurry.     City  of  New  York,  1911-12. 


THE  CURRICULA  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  311 

practicable  to  allow  considerable  latitude  in  stressing 
certain  elements  in  the  general  programme,  in  changing 
the  actual  materials  used  as  well  as  the  presentation,  so 
as  to  meet  peculiar  social  needs  and  conditions  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  a  large  system.  Then  there  is  also  op- 
portunity in  such  a  plan  for  a  larger  degree  of  initiative 
on  the  part  of  both  teachers  and  principal. 

17.    The  Principle  of  Economy  Involved 

This  brings  us  to  the  consideration,  finally,  of  the 
principle  of  economy  involved  in  constructing  the  cur- 
ricula of  our  schools.  Although  the  mass  of  materials 
seemingly  requiring  attention  in  any  complete  scheme 
for  the  training  of  youth  has  increased  rapidly  in  volume 
during  the  past  quarter  of  a  century,  yet  no  very  suc- 
cessful attempt  has  as  yet  been  made  by  the  schools 
generally  to  reorganize  this  mass  of  materials  into  such 
simple  unities  as  shall  bring  it  within  the  scope  of  the 
period  of  training  available  to  the  average  pupil. 

In  a  similar  sense  the-  demand  for  a  more  highly  spe- 
cialized and  varied  ability  in  the  teaching  force  is  notice- 
able, with  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  equipment 
called  for.  All  these  changes  involve  a  heavy  increase 
in  the  educational  budget.  If  that  pubUc  sentiment 
which  ever  stands  behind  the  taxing  powers  of  our  gov- 
ernment is  to  acquiesce  in  all  this  growth  in  cost  it  will 
only  be  by  making  apparent  the  relative  importance,  the 
actual  civic  and  industrial  need,  of  what  the  schools  pro- 
pose to  do.  But  more  important  than  financial  econ- 
omy, essential  as  this  may  be,  is  that  economy  of  time 
to  be  sought,  through  a  better  arrangement  of  sequences, 
in  order  to  prepare  the  individual,  without  loss,  for  effi- 
cient service. 

All  this  goes  to  demonstrate  the  fact  that  all  friends 


312  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

of  true  educational  progress  are  bound  to  count  care- 
fully the  various  elements  of  cost  involved  and  to  elim- 
inate every  wasteful  factor  in  the  administration  of  in- 
struction. In  other  words,  it  is  the  business  of  those 
of  us  who  are  specialists  in  this  field  of  education  to  see 
to  it  that  society  actually  gets  from  the  schools,  in  a 
genuinely  economic  sense,  those  values  for  which  public 
education  is  instituted  and  maintained. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE    TEACHER 

Here,  after  seventeen  chapters,  we  approach  the  heart 
of  the  whole  matter.  Imagine  a  line  at  which  are  to  be 
found,  on  the  one  side,  all  those  who  are  to  be  taught; 
on  the  other  side,  all  those  who  are  to  teach.  Here  are 
to  be  brought,  in  proper  order,  all  materials  of  educa- 
tion. The  personality  of  the  teacher,  en  rapport  with 
that  of  the  child,  produces  the  atmosphere  in  which  this 
material  is  to  be  contemplated,  mentally  digested  and 
assimilated,  in  the  processes  of  education.  All  that  has 
preceded  exists  solely  that  this  may  be  possible,  and  that 
it  may  be  done  most  economically,  most  effectively,  as 
concerns  the  highest  welfare  of  the  individual  and  of  the 
social  group. 

I.    The  Teacher  Should  Volunteer  the  Service 

And  who  and  what  should  the  teacher  be?  Society 
has  assumed  at  least  partial  responsibility  for  the  train- 
ing of  those  who  are  to  teach,  and  should  do  so  quite  as 
completely  as  soldiers  are  trained  for  the  business  of 
war.  Society  also  undertakes  the  selection  of  those  who 
are  to  teach,  including  all  the  raw  recruits  who  seek  to 
enlist  in  the  work  without  special  preparation.  The 
supervising  agencies  of  the  schools  are  supposed  to  take 
care  of  the  teachers'  progressive  training  in  service. 
But,  as  for  the  attitude  of  all  those  who  enter  the  ser- 
vice, they  should  be  volunteers.     Economic  compulsion 

313 


314  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

undoubtedly  causes  many  to  seek  positions  as  teachers. 
With  these  it  is  largely  only  a  temporary  "shift."  The 
exceptional  cases  may  belong  in  one  of  two  classes :  those 
who  stay  in  the  work  because  they  lack  the  courage  and 
force  to  voluntarily  get  out  and  those  who  cultivate  a 
real  liking  for  the  work  and  so  deliberately  choose  to 
remain. 

2.    The  Typical  Teacher  Characterized 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  vast  majority  of  those  who 
have  taught  for  three  or  more  years  have  chosen  the 
work  of  the  teacher  with  some  dehberation  and  as  a 
matter  of  preference,  either  before  entering  upon  it  or  as 
a  result  of  experience.  But,  when  we  consider  the  short- 
ness of  the  average  life^  of  the  teacher,  the  real  number 
who  have  deliberately  chosen  to  teach  becomes  rela- 
tively very  small.  "The  typical  American  male  pubUc- 
school  teacher,"  says  Coflfman,  speaking  in  terms  of 
medians,  "is  twenty-nine  years  of  age,  having  begun 
teaching  when  he  was  almost  twenty  years  of  age,  after 
he  had  received  but  three  or  four  years  of  training  be- 
yond the  elementary  school.  In  the  nine  years  elapsing 
between  the  age  he  began  teaching  and  his  present  age 
he  has  had  seven  years  of  experience,  and  his  salary  at 
the  present  time  is  $489  a  year.  Both  of  his  parents 
were  living  when  he  entered  teaching  and  both  spoke 
the  English  language.  They  had  an  annual  income 
from  their  farm  of  $700,  which  they  were  compelled 
to  use  to  support  themselves  and  their  four  or  five 
children." 

•  Coffman  has  shown  that  77+  per  cent  of  rural  teachers,  44+  per  cent 
of  town,  44.65  per  cent  in  cities  of  8,000  and  over,  and  28.6  per  cent  in 
cities  of  100,000  and  over  teach  five  years  or  less. — (L.  D.  Coffman, 
"The  Social  Composition  of  the  Teaching  Populations,"  Teachers  Col- 
lege, Columbia  University,  Contribution  to  Education,  iqh.) 


THE  TEACHER  316 

Similarly,  the  same  writer  characterizes  the  female 
teacher  as  follows:  "The  typical  American  female 
teacher  is  twenty-four  years  of  age,  having  entered 
teaching  in  the  early  part  of  her  nineteenth  year  when 
she  had  received  but  four  years  training  beyond  the 
elementary  schools.  Her  salary  at  her  present  age  is 
$485  a  year.  She  is  native  bom  of  native-bom  parents, 
both  of  whom  speak  the  English  language.  When  she 
entered  teaching  both  of  her  parents  were  living  and 
had  an  annual  income  of  approximately  $800,  which 
they  were  compelled  to  use  to  support  themselves  and 
their  four  or  five  children.  The  young  woman  early 
found  the  pressure,  both  real  and  anticipated,  to  earn 
her  own  way  very  heavy.  As  teaching  was  regarded  as 
a  highly  respectable  calling,  and  as  the  transfer  from 
the  schoolroom  as  a  student  to  it  as  a  teacher  was  but 
a  step,  she  decided  upon  teaching." 

Here  we  have  a  fairly  correct  picture  of  the  situation — 
of  the  teacher  in  real  life.  What  can  be  expected  of  our 
schools  under  such  conditions?  Certainly,  experience 
has  long  since  shown  us  that  we  get  much  more  and  bet- 
ter by  way  of  results  than  we  should  naturally  expect. 
But  in  such  general  characterizations  we  must  remem- 
ber that  there  is  always  a  goodly  list  above  median 
who  are  able  to  project  themselves,  through  others  of 
inferior  qualities,  into  a  much  wider  field  of  influence 
than  that  represented  by  mere  numbers.  It  is  "the 
little  leaven,"  after  all,  that  is  able  to  make  us  socially 
optimistic  and  render  our  schools  reasonably  efl&cient 
in  spite  of  the  general  showing  presented  in  terms  of 
preparation  by  our  teaching  force.  Nevertheless,  it  is 
undoubtedly  true  that  one  of  our  first  cares  should  be 
to  raise  these  standards  to  a  much  higher  average  level. 


316  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 


3.    Personality  in  Teaching 

But  no  amount  of  training  in  scholarship  or  profes- 
sionally can  make  amends  for  the  lack  of  certain  per- 
sonal qualities  essential  to  successful  teaching.  Here 
the  matter  of  selection  is  a  far  more  difficult  problem 
than  in  matters  of  training.  The  latter  may  be  deter- 
mined somewhat  formally  by  means  of  the  individual's 
student  record  and  by  examinations.  The  only  effec- 
tively formal  way  to  determine  a  successful  personaUty 
is  by  observing  the  actual  teaching  work  of  the  indi- 
vidual teacher  and  gauging  the  achievement  in  terms  of 
such  standards  as  are  available  for  the  subjects  taught. 
It  is  in  this  aspect  of  the  work  that  our  methods  are 
most  crude  and  faulty.  Outside  of  some  few  city  sys- 
tems there  is  no  adequate  method  of  checking  and  re- 
cording the  capabilities  of  those  who  teach  in  terms  of 
their  personal  qualities. 

Every  call  that  comes  from  teachers'  agencies  or  city 
superintendents  seeking  information  concerning  candi- 
dates asks  particularly  about  the  ''personality"  of  the 
teacher.  Now,  what  is  this  thing  about  which  all  em- 
ployers desire  reliable  information?  And  how  is  one  to 
know  the  answer?  If  one  knows  the  individual  in  ques- 
tion well  and  has  seen  him  at  work,  he  may  venture  to 
state  a  few  facts  about  those  personal  qualities  which 
go  to  make  up  personality;  otherwise  one's  opinion  must 
be  largely  a  guess.  And  even  at  best  it  is  not  always 
easy  to  state  facts,  much  as  the  necessity  of  the  case 
may  require  the  plain  truth  about  a  candidate  for  a 
given  teaching  position. 

By  personaUty  we  mean  what  is  included  in  character 
and   something  more.     One  may  possess  an  excellent 


THE  TEACHER  317 

character  and  yet  fail  as  a  teacher.  There  may  be  lack- 
ing assurance,  directive  power,  convincing  qualities  of 
speech  and  action,  which  play  an  important  part  in  per- 
sonal control  of  others  or  in  commanding  their  respect. 
One's  personal  appearance  is  a  partial  index  of  this 
quality.  Voice,  cleanliness,  taste  in  dress,  facial  habit, 
grace  of  movement  or  lack  of  it,  all  aid  one  in  judging 
of  the  personality  of  another.  Hence  it  follows  that  one 
may  develop  or  modify  his  own  personality.  For  ner- 
vousness, composure  may  be  cultivated;  for  harshness  of 
voice,  soft  and  musical  notes;  for  brusqueness,  affabil- 
ity; for  careless  dress,  tastefulness;  for  uncleanly  hab- 
its, scrupulous  neatness.  It  is  not  quite  correct  to  think 
of  personality  as  being,  like  the  leopard's  spots,  inevi- 
tably fixed.  But  for  him  who  thus  despairs  there  is  apt 
to  be  lacking  that  central  factor  in  personality — force  of 
will.  Think  of  what  could  be  done  in  the  case  of  a  Helen 
Keller;  of  a  Demosthenes  overcoming  an  impediment 
of  speech  to  go  down  in  history  as  a  world-renowned 
orator;  of  the  Elmira  experiment  with  the  twelve  worst 
criminals.  Only  sheer  lack  of  will  need  cause  any  one 
to  despair.  Wise  coaching  on  the  part  of  a  supervisor 
is  capable  of  producing  marvellous  results  in  cases  which 
otherwise  might  be  hopeless. 

4.     The  Teacher's  Ethics  Concerning  Appointments 

In  the  matter  of  appointments  there  seems  to  be  a 
woful  state  of  things  among  teachers  generally.  Fear 
of  failure  to  secure  any  appointment  often  leads  to  what 
appears  to  be  a  serious  laxity  in  the  average  teacher's 
code  of  ethics.  Possibly,  when  the  teacher's  tenure  be- 
comes less  precarious,  less  subject  to  personal  or  neigh- 
borhood whims,  on  the  one  hand,  or  a  mistaken  estimate 


318  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

of  values  in  positions,  on  the  other,  this  state  of  things 
may  subside.  As  things  now  are,  the  moral  effect  on 
the  profession  is  deplorable.  No  teacher  should  accept 
an  appointment  merely  to  secure  him  against  final  fail- 
ure to  obtain  one.  One's  attitude  should  be  that  of 
determining  a  finality.  There  should  be  a  willingness 
to  "bide  the  consequences"  when  one  accepts  or  de- 
clines an  appointment  to  teach;  and,  indeed,  the  cases 
are  rare,  if  one  has  the  will,  where  such  an  attitude  will 
not  most  surely  win  success  in  the  long  run.  Occa- 
sionally, unexpected  and  therefore  unsought  openings 
come  which  so  evidently  mark  a  turning-point  in  one's 
professional  career  as  to  call  for  a  reconsideration  and 
request  for  honorable  release.  To  such  a  request,  fairly 
and  rightly  presented,  few  school  boards  will  offer  a 
denial.  It  is  the  heartless  disregard  of  contracts  for 
the  sake  of  a  few  dollars  more,  or  a  little  easier  or 
more  notable  position,  that  has  exasperated  school 
boards  and  school  superintendents  almost  beyond  en- 
durance. Such  teachers  have  simply  never  learned  real 
values;  they  do  not  know  how  to  estimate  the  cost 
of  such  an  act. 

5.    Professional  Attitude  of  the  Teacher 

This  consideration  brings  before  us  the  larger  ques- 
tion of  the  professional  attitude  of  the  teacher.  Such 
a  relation  on  the  part  of  the  individual  teacher  appears 
with  reference  to  (i)  the  administrative  organization  of 
the  schools;  (2)  the  individual  members  of  the  teaching 
force  of  which  he  is  one;  (3)  the  school  as  a  whole  in 
its  larger  social  aspects;  and  (4)  various  larger  educa- 
tional interests.  The  school  is  an  organization  in  which 
several  individuals,  the  number  varying  with  the  popu- 
lation included  in  the  unit  of  control  which  the  school  is 


THE  TEACHER  319 

to  serve,  are  colaborers  toward  a  common  end  and  pur- 
pKDse.  Such  a  situation  always  calls  for  that  spirit  of 
co-operation  which  we  sometimes  express  as  esprit  de 
corps,  "team-work."  In  other  words,  to  follow  the 
phraseology  of  athletics,  each  one  must  play  his  part  in 
the  game  not  only  as  an  individual  but  as  part  of  the 
team  and  therefore  at  the  call  of  the  captain.  In  the 
best  sense  this  is  not  subordination,  it  is  perfect  co- 
ordination; and  in  teaching  as  well  as  in  athletics  he 
"plays  the  game  best"  who  fully  and  heartily  recog- 
nizes this  fact. 

This  spirit  of  the  individual,  properly  adjusted  in  a 
great  social  service,  shows  itself  in  the  matter  of  ap- 
pointments and  contracts  to  which  reference  has  already 
been  made.  It  appears  also  in  the  teacher's  attitude 
toward  the  superintendent  and  all  supervising  officers. 
It  manifests  itself  in  the  spirit  with  which  all  rules 
are  observed,  all  suggestions  heeded,  all  advice  and 
counsel  received  and  appropriated.  It  becomes  evident 
also  in  the  promptness,  fulness,  and  accuracy  of  reports; 
in  attendance  upon  and  participation  in  all  meetings  of 
special  groups  or  of  the  entire  teaching  body;  in  a  will- 
ingness to  share  the  burden  of  preparation  for  discus- 
sions or  in  carrying  on  investigations  relative  to  the 
more  difficult  problems  of  the  school;  in  the  way  in 
which  any  emergency  call  is  received,  whether  in  case 
of  illness  or  absence  of  a  fellow  teacher,  or  because  of 
some  unforeseen  excess  of  work  to  be  distributed,  or  in 
the  face  of  some  accident  or  grave  danger. 

Not  less  vital  and  important  is  that  professional  atti- 
tude which  manifests  itself  in  the  teacher's  relationship 
to  the  other  members  of  the  corps  as  well  as  of  the 
profession  at  large.  The  true  spirit  shows  forth  in  a 
genuine  comradeship.     Each  individual  has  a  jealous 


320  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

care  for  the  professional  reputation,  the  personal  well- 
being  of  every  member  of  the  group.  If  one  is  in  any 
difficulty,  sympathy  is  apparent  from  each  of  the  others. 
Does  another  achieve  something  of  note,  receive  some 
special  honor  or  recognition,  it  is  counted  as  so  much 
gain  for  all.  The  fair-minded  teacher  permits  no  evil 
gossip,  in  his  presence,  concerning  any  other  member  or 
official  of  the  corps.  A  right  professional  attitude  is 
inimical  to  covetousness,  to  jealousy,  to  unfair  play.  It 
never  expresses  itself  in  an  effort  to  "protect"  local  or 
State  teachers  against  fair  competition  by  outsiders. 

Entirely  aside  from  the  personal  responsibilities  of 
the  teacher  in  instructing  the  pupils  assigned  to  his 
care,  there  are  certain  general  interests  connected  with 
the  general  social  fife  of  the  school  in  which  all  teachers 
are  called  to  share.  This  relation  is  most  marked  in  a 
large  school  unit  or  centre.  To  ignore  or  neglect  this 
aspect  of  the  teacher's  work,  without  good  cause,  is  a 
serious  breach  of  professional  obligation.  The  indi- 
vidual who  enters  into  contract  to  teach  in  a  certain 
capacity,  without  having  carefully  considered  and  ac- 
cepted this  and  all  other  professional  obligations  as 
essential  to  the  success  of  his  work  individually  and  of 
the  school  as  a  whole,  will  probably  not  proceed  very 
far  without  some  unhappy  experiences. 

Then,  too,  there  are  interests  involving  professional 
spirit  and  loyalty  lying  entirely  outside  of  the  particu- 
lar school  in  which  one  is  called  to  instruct.  It  is  one 
of  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  democratic  institutions 
that  each  individual  must  devote  some  time  and  trouble 
to  matters  of  general  pubhc  concern  without  pay.  In 
this  respect  the  teacher  is  not  exempt;  and  especially 
does  the  obligation  lie  to  lend  a  hand  in  all  honorable 
and  unselfish  plans  for  the  betterment  of  schools  and 


THE  TEACHER  321 

for  general  professional  uplift.  This  does  not  imply 
that  there  should  be  an  attitude  of  supine  acquiescence, 
as  by  compulsion,  in  doing  what  is  a  downright  wrong 
or  imposition.  The  individual  always  has  a  right  to 
be  heard;  but  when  full  and  free  discussion  has  been 
had  and  a  decision  reached  the  individual  should  strive 
to  make  the  decision  of  the  majority  his  own  in  so  far 
as  immediate  action  is  concerned. 

6.    The  Teacher's  Rights  and  Privileges 

No  such  eflFective  co-operation  as  is  impUed  in  the 
foregoing  discussion  of  the  teacher's  professional  atti- 
tude will  be  possible  without  due  recognition,  on  the 
part  of  all  in  authority  and  all  coworkers,  of  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  the  teacher.  It  has  been  seen  to  be 
the  province  of  society  to  train  and  select  teachers.  No 
matter  what  may  have  been  the  teacher's  antecedents, 
this  training  and  selection  should  be  sufficient  guarantee 
of  the  teacher's  right  to  respectful  treatment  as  a  mem- 
ber of  society.  If  there  remain  any  real  personal  causes 
for  even  an  approach  toward  social  ostracism,  then  so- 
ciety, and  not  the  teacher,  is  culpable.  The  teacher, 
once  chosen  and  appointed,  is  entitled  to  consideration 
commensurate  with  the  high  calling  of  those  who  are 
to  be  the  intimate  guides  and  instructors  of  the  young. 
Each  teacher  owes  it  to  himself  and,  indeed,  to  his 
calling  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  normal  social  life 
about  him.  The  allotment  of  work  should  be  such  as 
to  make  readily  possible  his  recognition  and  acceptance 
of  this  relation  which  should  be  cherished  as  at  once  a 
privilege  and  an  obligation. 

There  are  also  the  professional  rights  of  the  individual 
teacher.  He  is  entitled  to  a  fair  and  impartial  rating 
by  those  who  supervise  his  work;   to  advancement  and 


322  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

recognition  on  merit  for  service  rendered  and  for  abil- 
ity displayed.  No  extraneous  "influence"  should  have 
weight  here.  The  duties  assigned  should  leave  the 
individual  a  fair  chance  for  participation  in  all  the 
privileges  of  his  profession  proportionately  with  those 
with  whom  he  works.  Speaking  abstractly,  the  individ- 
ual teacher  has  a  right  to  expect  those  opportunities 
necessary  for  and  essential  to  his  professional  improve- 
ment that  lie  outside  of  his  immediate  personal  work  in 
the  school.  Neither  the  board  nor  the  supervisor  can 
rightfully  neglect  making  provision  for  such  participa- 
tion in  the  recognized  means  of  training  in  service. 

Most  vitally  important  of  all  are  the  personal  rights 
of  the  teacher — the  right  to  compensation  adequate  to 
enable  him  to  meet  all  his  obligations,  family,  social, 
professional;  the  right  to  a  fair  and  equitable  allotment 
of  hours;  to  suitable  room  and  equipment;  to  the  sym- 
pathy and  respect  of  all  coworkers,  whether  of  equal 
rank  or  otherwise,  in  the  distribution  of  the  tasks  of 
the  school;  to  opportunity  for  such  rest  and  recreation 
as  the  strenuous  nerve  strain  of  the  teacher's  work  re- 
quires. How  else  can  the  spirit  of  the  teacher  be  free, 
the  mind  clear  and  alert,  the  body  a  sure  support,  in 
vital  energy,  for  the  duties  of  the  schoolroom? 

7.    The  Teacher's  Duty  to  Self 

The  teacher's  duty  to  himself  is  akin  to  his  personal 
rights  in  effect.  Of  what  consequence  will  all  these 
other  things  be — how  will  leisure  or  compensation  or 
sympathy  profit  the  individual  who  is  profligate  of  self 
and  all  material  resources;  who  neglects  the  oppor- 
tunity for  physical  recuperation;  who  drains  his  vital- 
ity to  the  dregs  in  a  vain  effort  to  do  the  impossible 
or  in  a  lazy  dread  of  unaccustomed  physical  exertion? 


THE  TEACHER  323 

Equally  fatal  would  be  the  neglect  of  his  mental  life 
and  growth,  of  that  wider  reading  and  experience  which 
will  give  him  a  broader  outlook  on  life.  The  teacher  who 
grows  old  and  worn-out  before  his  time  is  not  he  who 
numbers  the  most  years  of  existence  or  of  service.  It 
is  the  one  who  settles  helplessly  into  the  routine  of 
daily  tasks,  content  to  permit  them  to  absorb  his  whole 
time,  to  become  the  sum  total  of  his  entire  round  of 
experiences.  To  such  a  one  life  is  little,  if  any,  longer 
than  the  time  it  takes  to  acquire  a  set  of  habits  asso- 
ciated about  a  few  closely  related  central  experiences. 

The  work  of  the  teacher  calls  for  the  man  at  his  best 
— the  man  who  is  alive,  growing,  enthusiastic,  adjusting 
himself  daily  to  the  changing  demands  of  his  task.  It 
is  the  final  purpose  of  the  administration  of  education 
to  place  in  the  hands  of  such  persons  the  instruction  of 
all  those  who  should  be  taught.  That  type  of  admin- 
istration of  instruction  which  undertakes  to  impose 
fixed  methods  upon  the  teacher  is  fatal.  It  nullifies  at 
one  stroke  all  that  the  entire  fabric  of  organization  out- 
side the  teacher's  domain  was  intended  to  accomplish 
— that  of  aiding  him  in  the  independent,  untrammelled 
occupation  of  his  domain. 

8.     Preparation  Which  the  Service  Demands 

The  school  is  that  convention  of  society  in  which  it 
is  undertaken  to  set  up  a  series  of  experiences,  selected 
and  condensed  as  compared  with  individual  Ufe  experi- 
ences, in  order  that  the  young  may  come  thus  prema- 
turely into  possession  of  the  essence  of  those  things 
which  represent  the  best  of  what  the  race  has  achieved 
up  to  the  present  time.  At  the  very  best  the  task  is  a 
stupendous  one,  made  more  so  by  each  passing  year. 
The  teacher  is  the  artist,  the  inspiration,  the  vitalizing 


324  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

medium  in  the  process.  His  task  is  not,  as  some  sup- 
pose,  to  measure  off  lessons  by  the  page  or  exercises 
by  the  hour  until  the  years  of  preparation  of  childhood 
and  youth  have  been  lived  through.  His  is  a  far  more 
(Complex  problem  of  service.  He  is  constantly  experi- 
/nenting  not  with  inert  matter  but  with  life — with  hu- 
man life  both  in  its  physical  and  mental  aspects.  He 
constantly  seeks  the  material,  the  exercise,  the  experi- 
ence which  is  to  set  up  in  the  bodies  and  minds  of 
individuals  experiences  that  correspond,  in  their  trend, 
to  those  fundamental  conventions  which  represent  the 
legacy  of  all  past  generations  to  those  of  the  present 
and  future;  individuals  who,  in  turn,  are  to  bear  forward 
the  trophy  for  another  lap  in  life's  endless  relay. 

Viewed  in  such  a  light,  what  preparation,  befitting 
such  a  task,  should  the  teacher  seek  for  himself?  Shall 
it  be  just  barely  enough  to  pass  the  lenient  require- 
ments of  certificating  laws  made  obsolescent  by  the 
swift  march  of  progress?  Or  shall  it  be  the  very  most 
and  best  that  his  effort  can  win,  with  plans  for  an- 
nual instalments  of  increase  suflficient  to  keep  a  little 
ahead  of  the  best  educational  practice?  Certainly,  if 
one  is  sincere  with  himself  and  with  his  calling,  nothing 
short  of  the  latter  will  do.  Only  the  time-server  will 
be  content  to  drift  along,  resorting  to  all  sorts  of  sub- 
stitutions for  professional  merit  in  order  to  keep  himself 
employed. 

But  when  it  comes  to  a  specialized  choice  in  the  field 
of  teaching  a  different  problem  is  presented.  Here  one 
must  study  his  or  her  own  tastes  and  aptitudes  with 
the  purpose  not  only  of  avoiding  that  which  is  distaste- 
ful but  also  of  finding  that  to  do  which  shall  be  a  per- 
ennial joy  in  the  doing.  For  the  price  of  success  in  the 
teacher's  field  is  inexorably  heavy,  and  serious  will  be 


THE  TEACHER  325 

the  handicap  where  real  love  for  the  work  is  lacking. 
It  is  doubtless  true  that  there  will  be  found  differences 
in  the  present  promise  of  various  fields  of  teaching  as 
far  as  compensation  is  concerned.  Public  sentiment  is 
very  fickle  in  such  matters.  Nevertheless,  there  is  a 
fine  success  to  be  won  in  any  field.  Is  the  teacher  lured 
by  the  present  glamour  of  some  recent  development  in 
education  calling  for  a  special  preparation  and  promis- 
ing a  larger  reward?  Let  him  beware  lest  he  undertake 
a  task  of  which  he  may  soon  grow  weary.  Let  him  not 
disregard  the  real  bases  of  value  in  that  which  he  is  to 
take  up  deliberately  as  his  fife's  task. 

In  making  such  a  selection  from  the  larger  field  one 
should  consider  the  possibilities  of  promotion  and  the 
initial  preparation  which  such  promotion  will  require. 
As  fife's  responsibifities  increase  with  years — for  such  is 
the  normal  experience  of  mankind — there  will  come  also 
the  need  of  increase  in  one's  income.  Fortunate,  indeed, 
is  that  person  who  always,  when  opportunity  presents 
itself  for  advancement  in  a  chosen  career,  fijads  himself 
ready  to  take  advantage  of  it. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
CLASSIFICATION  AND  PROMOTIONS 

I.    The  Problem  Stated 

No  other  problem  in  the  field  of  educational  adminis- 
tration that  is  related  directly  to  instruction  presents  so 
many  stubborn  dijS&culties  as  does  the  problem  of  classi- 
fication and  promotions  throughout  the  various  stages 
of  the  educative  process.  This  is  undoubtedly  due  to 
our  system  of  mass  education,  made  necessary  by  reason 
of  our  attempt  to  make  free  pubUc  instruction  universal. 
Nor  is  there  any  way  of  escape,  except  through  a  process 
of  poHtical  and  social  reversion.  Overwhelmed  as  we 
are  in  our  efforts  to  provide  facilities  for  all,  even  en 
masse,  how  utterly  hopeless  and  inconceivable  becomes 
any  thought  of  a  system  of  individual  instruction. 
And,  indeed,  it  is  not  likely  that  any  such  system  would 
prove  superior  to  the  present  simultaneous  or  class  sys- 
tehi  of  instruction.  On  the  contrary,  the  latter  method 
probably  has  more  in  its  favor  than  would  equal  the 
sum  of  all  its  disadvantages.  Any  teacher  who  has 
gone  from  the  tutoring  of  a  single  student  to  the  enthu- 
siasm of  numbers  and  the  interchange  of  thought  of 
class  teaching  is  readily  prepared  to  appreciate  the  ad- 
vantages of  class  work. 

2.    The  Theory  of  Classification 

In  our  educational  progress  we  seem  to  have  been  a 
little  slow  in  finding  a  satisfactory  basis  for  classifying 

326 


CLASSIFICATION   AND   PROMOTIONS  327 

groups  of  individuals  together  for  purposes  of  instruc- 
tion. However,  when  we  consider  the  newness  of  it  all, 
the  movement  no  longer  strikes  us  as  being  so  very 
tardy.  The  general  theory  is  that  there  are  minds 
which  move  at  an  average  or  median  rate,  usually  des- 
ignated as  normal  and  constituting  a  majority  of  chil- 
dren or  youth  of  a  given  age  or  stage  of  development. 
Below  these  are  subnormal  types,  and  above  are  super- 
normals.  The  aim  in  classification  should  be  to  keep 
the  normals  moving  regularly  forward  together,  while 
the  subnormals  are  set  out  for  special  treatment  and  the 
supemormals  moved  ahead  with  a  rapidity  commen- 
surate with  the  superior  facility  with  which  they  are  able 
to  master  the  work  of  a  given  period. 

3.    Frequent  and  Careful  Revision  Necessary 

This  theory  is  a  very  general  one  and  carries  with 
it  several  possibilities  of  error  in  interpretation  or  appli- 
cation. In  the  first  place,  some  of  the  factors  causing 
these  differences  are  likely  to  be  eliminated,  as  time 
goes  on,  by  the  natural  processes  of  individual  physical 
and  mental  development.  Thus,  one  who  was  sub- 
normal last  year  may  be  a  good  normal  this  year.  In 
the  second  place,  the  tests  for  normal  or  other  condi- 
tion may  be  wrong  in  character  or  imperfectly  applied. 
In  either  emergency,  the  results  will  be  misleading  and 
liable  to  end  in  a  loss  for  the  individual.  This  means, 
simply,  that  classifications  should  be  subject  to  frequent 
and  careful  revision. 

4.     Individual  Work  and  Correct  Measure  of 
Achievement 

It  implies  also  that  there  will  need  to  be  always  indi- 
vidual work  on  the  part  not  only  of  the  teacher  of  the 


328  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

special  class  but  also  a  modicum  of  individual  work  by 
the  teacher  of  normals.  Such  treatment  of  the  prob- 
lem calls  for  constant  alertness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 
in  charge  as  well  as  of  the  immediate  supervisor  of  the 
work.  It  requires,  moreover,  a  clear  understanding  of 
what  experiences  are  to  be  set  up  in  the  minds  of  the 
pupils,  through  the  processes  of  instruction,  at  a  given 
stage  of  development  and  by  a  given  subject  or  exer- 
cise. Only  on  such  grounds  of  knowledge  and  insight 
can  there  be  any  intelligent  testing  and  judging  of  the 
pupil's  achievement.  One  of  the  most  common  failings 
of  our  present-day  methods  is  due  to  the  prevailing 
practice,  at  all  stages  of  educational  work,  of  applying 
only  quantitative  or  memoriter  tests  in  the  efforts  to 
determine  a  pupil's  progress.  Thus  far,  in  our  attempts 
to  measure  achievement,  too  much  sameness  has  char- 
acterized the  treatment  of  subjects  widely  different. 
Think,  for  instance,  of  testing  achievement  in  history 
study  by  the  same  question-and-answer  method  ap- 
plied to  mathematics.  How  is  such  a  method  to  throw 
any  light  on  the  socializing  process  which  has  been  go- 
ing on,  a  mental  process  of  change  of  which  the  pupil 
himself  may  be  entirely  unaware?  Yet  is  this  not  the 
chief  end  sought  in  the  teaching  of  history?  Students 
in  school  or  college  are  mentioned  as  having  good 
minds  but  slow  of  expression,  meaning,  ordinarily,  that 
they  think  things  through  and  therefore  gain  real  in- 
formation. On  the  other  hand,  the  precocious  indi- 
vidual talks  glibly  of  a  subject  only  as  he  remembers 
the  sa3dngs  of  some  writer  or  lecturer,  while  he  thinks 
little  or  not  at  all.  The  common  practice  would  be 
to  underrate  the  former  and  overrate  the  latter.  The 
rather  exceptional  teacher  will  discover  the  really  sig- 
nificant facts  about  the  two  and  probably  reverse  the 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  PROMOTIONS         329 

ranking.  In  high  school  or  college,  the  ratings  of  sev- 
eral different  teachers,  through  the  device  of  distribut- 
ing grades,  will  serve  as  a  check  and  balance.  In  the 
case  of  the  elementary  schools  the  supervisor  of  in- 
struction should  be  able  to  act  as  a  check  upon  errors 
in  judgment  by  teachers. 

5.     Correct  Classification  Calls  for  Careful  Study  of 
Changes  in  Individuals 

In  order  to  establish  and  preserve  a  good  working 
classification,  a  very  close  watch  needs  to  be  kept  upon 
the  pupils  of  the  first  five  or  six  grades  of  the  elemen- 
tary school.  If  the  basis  for  classification  has  thus  been 
well  looked  after  through  these  first  years,  there  should 
be  little  trouble  later  on.  Both  teacher  and  supervisor 
will  need  to  have  clearly  in  mind  such  measurements 
for  achievement  as  are  available.  Not  until  recently 
has  attention  been  called  definitely  to  the  possibility 
of  a  real  scientific  measure  of  efficiency  in  a  given  sub- 
ject. The  time  will  doubtless  soon  come  when  no  one 
will  think  of  making  promotions  in  our  schools  on  any 
other  basis.  The  children  who  early  manifest  a  weak- 
ness or  inability  to  carry  the  simpler  exercises  of  the 
first  few  grades  will  call  for  special  care.  If,  after  due 
testing,  any  are  found  decidedly  below  normal  in  their 
mental  ages  they  should  receive  special  expert  treat- 
ment in  the  school  for  specials. 

6.     Special  Care  in  Case  of  Abnonnals 

Similarly,  provision  will  also  be  made  for  those  who 
show  a  decidedly  supernormal  capacity.  These  should 
be  moved  forward  to  the  next  group  above  as  soon  as 
they  are  found  to  be  prepared  for  the  work  of  that 
group.    A  careful  elimination  of  specials,  both  below 


330  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

and  above  normal,  should  make  it  comparatively  easy 
to  preserve  the  regular  classification.  At  the  same  time, 
it  will  always  be  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  not  all 
who  classify  regularly  for  a  given  year  will  necessarily 
remain  normal  for  all  succeeding  years.  A  sudden  awak- 
ening of  some  dormant  power  may  discover  a  new  super- 
normal. Such  awakening  may  come  as  a  result  of  a 
cycle  of  development  completed  during  a  vacation  and 
thus  account  for  one  of  those  marvels  in  the  character 
of  a  dull  or  ordinary  boy  who  has  suddenly  been  trans- 
formed to  a  paragon  of  docility  and  aptness  in  the  grade 
higher  up. 

Then,  again,  some  of  those  classed  as  specials  in  the 
subnormal  group  will  be  restored,  as  thoroughly  com- 
petent, to  their  regular  grade.  There  is  always  danger, 
in  the  case  of  those  classed  in  the  deficient  group,  that 
this  condition  may  be  taken  for  granted  as  a  perma- 
nent thing.  For  this  reason,  only  specially  capable 
teachers  should  ever  be  intrusted  with  the  teaching  of 
these  groups.  Ultimately,  there  should  come  out  of  the 
classes  for  those  who  were  found  to  be  laggards  at  least 
two  groups  of  pupils:  (i)  those  who  are  able  to  recover 
their  grades  and  keep  up  with  normal  classification ;  (2) 
those  who  are  permanently  defective  but  who  are  ca- 
pable of  taking  a  fair  degree  of  mental  training  when 
made  sufl&ciently  concrete.  For  these,  regular  vocational 
training  should  be  early  provided.  It  is  assumed  here 
that  those  who  might  otherwise  constitute  a  third  group 
as  hopelessly  defective  mentally  should  have  been  dis- 
covered earlier  and  differently  cared  for  under  direc- 
tion of  the  psychological  clinic. 

Non-attendance  at  school,  especially  when  caused  by 
sickness  or  when  accompanied  by  severe  physical  labor 
amounting  to  overwork,  will  be  likely  to  add  to  the 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  PROMOTIONS  331 

second  class  even  from  the  ranks  of  those  who  started 
out  fairly  as  normals  or  even  stronger.  These  should 
have  especially  careful  treatment  in  order  to  enable 
them  to  regain  as  much  as  possible  of  the  opportuni- 
ties of  which  external  circumstances  may  otherwise  per- 
manently deprive  them. 

Besides  the  special  classes  already  referred  to,  there 
will  or  should  be  classes  for  tuberculars  with  suitable 
open-air  conditions,  classes  for  those  of  defective  hear- 
ing, for  the  blind,  and  for  cripples.  These  classes  will 
all  require  teachers  especially  qualified  to  deal  with  the 
peculiar  difl&culties  in  instruction  which  such  cases  pre- 
sent. 

7.    Periods  of  Promotion  as  Affecting  Classification 

As  a  very  important  factor  in  preserving  right  stand- 
ards of  classification,  some  careful  provision  for  ease  of 
movement  from  one  class  to  another  next  above  is  essen- 
tial. The  semiannual  promotion  plan  was  among  the 
first  devices  to  be  set  up  chiefly  for  this  purpose.  But 
here  the  time  to  be  bridged  over  is  frequently  too  long 
to  be  successfully  covered.  The  plan  carries  with  it  the 
idea  of  special  promotions  on  the  part  of  the  acceler- 
ants in  a  given  group.  It  also  simplifies  the  problem  of 
getting  those  slightly  retarded  in  readiness  for  the  regu- 
lar forward  movements  of  classes. 

A  still  more  effective  device  for  simplifying  such 
interclass  movements  is  the  one  developed  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.  By  this  plan  two  parallel  courses  are 
arranged  for  the  eight  grades  of  the  elementary  school. 
Course  A,  the  basal  course,  is  divided  into  twenty-three 
grades,  three  for  each  year  except  the  eighth,  which  has 
but  two.  Thus  each  grade  covers  the  work  of  about 
three  months.     Course  B,  the  parallel  or  supplementary 


332  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

course,  covers  the  same  work  in  six  years  and  is  divided 
into  seventeen  grades.  That  is,  pupils  taking  the  basal 
course  are  required  to  do  only  two  thirds  as  much 
work  in  a  given  time  as  those  in  course  B.  In  each 
course  there  are  three  regular  promotions  a  year,  except 
in  the  last,  where  there  are  but  two,  in  order  to  adjust 
to  high-school  entrance.  Such  a  plan  it  will  readily  be 
seen,  makes  interclass  changes,  either  upward  or  down- 
ward, a  comparatively  simple  matter.^ 

8.    What  Shall  Be  the  Basis  for  Promotions 

Whatever  may  be  the  plan  adopted  for  general  and 
special  or  inter-class  promotions,  some  well-considered 
scheme  as  a  basis  for  these  promotions  will  be  neces- 
sary. There  are  at  least  five  such  general  schemes  in 
use:  (i)  regular  monthly  and  term  examinations;  (2) 
the  class  record  of  the  pupils  as  kept  from  day  to  day; 
(3)  a  combination  of  (i)  and  (2)  according  to  some  arbi- 
trarily fixed  ratio;  (4)  class  record  supplemented  by  a 
test  intended  to  show  the  abiUty  of  the  pupils  to  do  the 
work  which  is  to  follow  in  the  next  higher  grade;  (5) 
promotion  by  subjects  based  on  ordinary  examination 
and  class-record  ratings.  Few  schools  are  to  be  found 
where  scheme  (i)  is  used  exclusively.  Scheme  (2)  oc- 
curs more  frequently  and  especially  in  higher  grades  of 
school  work.  If  the  record  has  been  thoughtfully  made, 
not  on  the  spur  of  the  moment,  as  merely  estimating 
the  percentage  value  of  a  recitation,  but  deliberately 
after  the  class  recitation  is  closed  as  expressing  the  com- 
prehension, the  growth  of  the  pupil,  the  estimate  thus 
recorded  may  be  a  very  safe  index  of  the  pupil's  ad- 
vancement. 

1  For  a  fuller  description  of  this  plan,  see  the  Annual  Report  of  Cam- 
bridge for  1910,  pp.  19-21. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  PROMOTIONS         333 

Still  more  satisfactory  will  be  scheme  (3)  if  thought- 
fully carried  out.  The  examination  should  serve  chiefly 
to  indicate  the  pupil's  grasp  of  knowledge  involved,  his 
clearness  of  analysis  and  consequent  accuracy,  his  log- 
ical organization  of  the  work  gone  over.  The  class  rec- 
ord should  show  clearly  a  definite  progress  in  knowl- 
edge and  thought  power  or  the  contrary.  Each  should 
serve  to  check  the  other.  The  arbitrarily  fixed  ratio 
would  better  be  avoided.  A  curious  modification  of 
this  method  is  found  in  use  in  some  high  schools.  Pupils 
who  attain  a  certain  standard  in  class  record  are  ex- 
cused from  the  examination.  This  practically  announces 
to  the  school  that  the  sole  utility  of  the  examination 
consists  in  determining  the  pupil's  rank  and  that  even 
in  this  relation  it  can  just  as  well  be  dispensed  with.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  examination,  rightly  conducted,  may 
be  one  of  the  very  best  correctives  for  both  teacher  and 
pupil.     This  real  value  should  not  be  thus  discredited. 

Scheme  (4)  differs  from  (3)  chiefly  in  the  nature  of 
the  examinations,  especially  that  made  from  the  office 
of  the  superintendent.  These  examinations  or  tests  are 
so  framed  as  to  seek  to  test  the  pupil's  ability  to  go  on 
with  his  work.  The  plan  eliminates  the  possibility  of  a 
mere  memory  test  of  what  has  been  gone  over  in  class. 
It  seeks  to  know  the  ability  to  use  the  knowledge  and 
power  attained  as  applied  to  the  doing  of  the  next  grade 
of  work.  Especial  emphasis  has  been  put  upon  this 
method  in  the  Oakland,  Cal.,  schools  under  the  super- 
vision of  J.  W.  McClymonds.  It  has  been  used  effec- 
tively in  connection  with  a  plan  for  special  promotions 
adopted  as  the  prevailing  method  in  the  Oakland  schools. 

Scheme  (5)  is  advocated  with  the  idea  that  pupils 
should  not  mark  time  in  all  other  subjects  because  of 
failure  to  carry  one  or  two.     Not  only  does  such  a  plan 


334  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

do  away  with  this  evil  of  useless  repetition  but  it  also 
makes  possible  the  repetition  of  work  not  at  first  accom- 
plished under  much  more  favorable  circumstances.  It 
also  facilitates  the  adaptation  of  the  school  curriculum 
to  the  needs  of  the  individual  pupil.  The  objections 
urged  against  this  plan  are:  (a)  difficulties  of  adminis- 
tration involved;  (b)  danger  that  the  pupil  may  neglect 
a  distasteful  subject;  (c)  interference  with  desirable  cor- 
relation of  work. 

A  very  interesting  modification  of  scheme  (5)  is  de- 
scribed and  commended  by  Superintendent  W.  H.  Max- 
well, of  New  York  City.^  The  particular  plan  was  in 
use  in  Miss  Tucker's  school,  Public  School  No.  163, 
Manhattan.  By  this  type  of  classification  a  pupil  when 
promoted  to  a  grade  is  classified  on  the  basis  of  his 
weakest  subject.  "  In  grades  where  there  are  two  classes, 
the  classes  formed  would  be  graded  on  the  basis  of 
weakness  in  arithmetic  and  in  language.  In  grades  hav- 
ing three  classes,  classification  would  be  made  on  the 
basis  of  weakness  in  arithmetic,  language,  and  manual- 
training  subjects.  The  new  classes  are  designated  and 
known  as  4  B  Arithmetic,  4  B  Language,  4  B  Manual 
Training  instead  of  as  4  B^,  4  B^,  4  B'."  By  means  of 
such  a  plan  each  pupil  in  the  school  receives  double 
time  in  his  or  her  weakest  subject,  and  so  in  many  cases 
a  pupil  who  is  at  first  weak  in  a  given  subject  later 
may  rank  strong  in  his  class.  Such  a  scheme  of  reor- 
ganization of  classes  seems  to  avoid  most  if  not  all  of 
the  disadvantages  of  the  method  of  subject  promotions. 

9.    The  Question  as  Applied  to  High  Schools 

Thus  far  the  elementary  school  has  been  under  con- 
sideration.    The  situation  is  changed  materially  when 

^  See  Report  of  New  York  City  Schools,  1910-11. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND   PROMOTIONS     ,     335 

the  high  school  is  reached  or  even  before  this  where 
the  intermediate  school  is  organized  on  the  depart- 
mental plan.  In  both  these  situations  promotions  are 
almost  universally  by  subjects,  and  the  pupil  who  fails 
in  a  given  subject  either  takes  it  over  again  at  the  first 
opportunity  or  substitutes  an  equivalent,  according  to 
the  degree  of  election  permitted  in  the  school  of  which 
he  is  a  member.  The  most  troublesome  cases  in  such 
instances  are  subjects  in  sequence.  There  is  also  to  be 
encountered  the  difficulty  of  classifying  so  as  to  avoid 
conflicts  in  recitations.  On  the  whole,  it  would  seem 
that  the  plan  used  in  the  Manhattan  school  might  be 
applied  to  great  advantage  in  our  larger  high  schools. 

10.    In  Higher  Institutions 

In  higher  institutions  generally  the  system  of  credit 
hours  is  used  with  liberal  election  schemes.  If  a  sub- 
ject in  which  a  student  fails  to  make  his  credit  happens 
to  be  prescribed  for  his  course  as  a  prerequisite  to  other 
essential  courses,  or  for  graduation,  the  student  must 
simply  work  through  the  difiSculty  as  best  he  can  in  the 
time  remaining  for  the  completion  of  his  work.  The 
only  help  for  the  situation  in  these  higher  stages,  aside 
from  a  general  improvement  of  imdergraduate  instruc- 
tion, is  a  more  careful  selection  of  courses  in  prepara- 
tion in  the  high  school  and  also  of  the  special  line  of 
work  to  be  taken  in  the  college  or  university. 

II.     The  Problem  of  Transfers 

In  this  process  of  classification  and  promotions  there 
arises,  as  a  sort  of  by-product,  the  problem  of  dealing 
with  transfers  from  one  school  to  another.  The  devel- 
opment of  modern  industries  and  commerce  has  greatly 
increased  the  mobiUty  of  our  population.     As  one  result 


336  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

of  this  change  scarcely  a  week  passes  during  the  months 
when  schools  are  in  session  that  does  not  bring  to  the 
administrative  ofl5ce  of  the  schools  of  practically  every 
town  and  city  one  or  more  pupils  by  transfer  from 
other  systems.  These  become  special  cases  for  adjust- 
ment. Differences  in  school  management  always  stand 
out  prominently  in  such  instances.  Fortunate,  indeed, 
is  it  for  the  pupils  concerned  if  they  do  not  lose  some- 
thing by  the  exchange.  The  work  done  in  given  sub- 
jects in  the  schools  thus  compared  may  differ  widely 
either  in  quantity  or  quality,  or  both.  Some  things 
required  in  one  school  system  may  be  entirely  lacking 
in  the  other.    The  problem  is  frequently  acute. 

In  the  case  of  the  early  elementary  grades  any  dis- 
crepancy in  work  may  soon  be  corrected,  although  not 
without  becoming  something  of  a  tax  upon  the  time  of 
teacher  and  principal.  As  we  advance  in  the  grades  the 
relative  flexibility  is  less  and  the  adjustment  conse- 
quently more  difficult.  In  the  high  school  a  scheme  of 
equivalents  may  be  used  either  by  tacit  agreement  or 
by  formal  approval  of  the  board.  But  even  this  will 
not  always  take  care  of  subjects  remaining  in  sequence 
through  two  or  more  years.  In  colleges  and  imiversi- 
ties  the  problem  presents  many  complications  due  to 
wide  variation  in  aims  and  purposes  affecting  the  for- 
mulation of  curricula.  In  one  case  a  subject  may  be 
purely  elective  which  in  another  corresponding  pro- 
gramme may  be  made  a  prerequisite  to  courses  fol- 
lowing. 

There  is  a  certain  form  of  transfers  for  which  the 
above  discussion  does  not  provide.  It  is  the  demand 
arising  each  year  and  often  through  the  year  for  trans- 
fer of  pupils  from  one  school  to  another  in  the  same 
system.     Frequently,  too,  such  transfers  are  called  for 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  PROMOTIONS         337 

on  account  of  overcrowding  in  certain  schools  caused  by 
some  sudden  influx  of  population  to  the  school  com- 
munity. The  latter  cases  are  frequently  best  cared  for 
by  the  use  of  the  portable  schoolhouse  which  serves  as 
an  annex  to  the  established  school. 

In  the  case  of  transfers  called  for  on  account  of  the 
thousand  and  one  reasons  which  patrons  offer  in  pre- 
senting their  requests  at  the  office  of  the  superintendent 
there  is  usually  more  or  less  trouble  in  store  for  that 
official.  Where  regular  district  boundaries  are  estab- 
lished for  both  elementary  and  high  schools  the  matter 
has  to  be  handled  with  great  care.  The  situation  will 
be  rendered  still  more  acute  when  requests  are  backed 
up  by  "influential  citizens"  or  where,  in  case  of  dis- 
trict representation  on  the  board,  influence  is  brought 
to  bear  upon  the  superintendent  through  the  member 
from  that  portion  of  the  city  in  which  the  petitioner 
lives. 

Perhaps  the  most  fortunate  arrangement,  all  things 
considered,  is  to  avoid  the  district  plan  of  assignment 
altogether,  as  has  been  practised  in  Oakland,  Cal.,  for 
a  number  of  years.  Pupils  may  then  seek  the  school 
of  their  choice,  but  with  the  understanding  that  if  the 
school  to  which  they  apply  for  admission  has  more  appli- 
cants than  there  is  room  for  the  preference  will  be  given 
to  those  residing  nearest  to  the  school.  Then  in  case 
of  rejection  the  pupil  must  go  to  the  next  best  school  of 
his  or  his  parents'  choosing  where  he  can  be  admitted. 
This  throws  the  whole  responsibility  back  where  it  be- 
longs, on  the  ones  seeking  transfer  for  special  reasons. 

12.    Need  of  Reform  in  the  Matter  of  Transfers 

In  all  its  aspects  the  matter  of  transfer  of  pupils  in 
our  schools  and  students  in  our  colleges  really  calls  for 


338  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

some  radical  reform  in  the  interests  of  true  economy. 
The  waste  in  this  case  will  be  seen  to  be  both  financial 
and  in  life  possibilities  of  children  and  youth.  Prob- 
ably nothing  short  of  a  closer  and  more  expert  super- 
vision such  as  was  advocated  in  chapter  XIII  can  be 
found  to  effectively  remedy  the  defect.  There  are,  no 
doubt,  situations  where  a  Httle  more  flexibihty  in  the 
shape  of  a  willingness  to  accept  equivalent  work  along 
other  Hnes  than  those  required  by  the  receiving  school 
or  institution  would  save  students  entering  by  transfer 
from  irretrievable  loss.  Such  a  course,  if  adopted,  needs 
to  be  clearly  thought  out  by  some  one  who  is  broad 
enough  to  weigh  relative  values  rather  than  by  some 
instructor  or  administrative  officer  whose  subject  or 
institutional  prejudice  might  lead  him  to  be  partial  in 
judgment. 

13.     Scientific  Treatment  Will  Bring  Relief 

It  marks  a  great  day  in  educational  advancement  that 
the  light  of  real  scientific  study  has  been  turned  on  these 
problems.  Even  now  no  city  superintendent  of  any 
city  that  is  educationally  self-respecting  dares  to  neglect 
a  careful  survey  of  his  classifications.  He  will  see  to  it 
that  the  number  and  causes  of  retardation  are  known; 
and  if  remedies  are  not  provided,  so  far  as  it  is  now 
possible  for  school  authorities  to  prescribe  them,  it  will 
not  be  by  reason  of  failure  on  his  part  to  make  proper 
recommendations  to  his  board.  The  work  to  be  under- 
taken by  the  commission  on  school  efficiency  established 
by  the  Department  of  Superintendents  of  the  National 
Education  Association^  is  evidence  that  our  superinten- 
dents are  awake  to  both  the  needs  and  the  possibilities 
presented  in  these  problems  which  concern  so  closely 
*  Established  at  the  Philadelphia  meeting,  19 13. 


CLASSIFICATION  AND  PROMOTIONS  339 

this  important  phase  of  the  work  of  instruction — the 
classification  and  promotion  of  the  young  throughout 
the  period  of  pubhc-school  training. 

14.    University  of  Missouri  Plan 

Similar  efforts  to  arrive  at  a  more  rational  treatment 
of  the  problem,  as  it  appears  in  colleges  and  universities, 
are  not  lacking.  In  this  field  the  University  of  Mis- 
souri has  led  in  a  very  decisive  and  creditable  way  by 
adopting  the  device  of  scientifically  distributing  stu- 
dents' grades  according  to  the  natural  distribution  of 
ability  or  achievement.  The  plan  was  adopted  by  the 
faculty  of  the  University  of  Missouri  in  1908.  The  fol- 
lowing brief  description  of  this  method  of  grading  quoted 
from  another  writer^  will  be  sufficient  for  the  purposes 
of  this  discussion:  "The  system  in  question  was  intro- 
duced by  the  faculty,  and  its  administration  is  in  charge 
of  a  special  committee  of  the  faculty.  It  is  definitely 
based  upon  the  assumption  that  the  distribution  of  abil- 
ity or  achievement  in  college  classes  is  approximately 
normal.  Every  teacher  is  expected  to  rank  the  students 
in  his  classes  in  order  of  merit  and  then  to  assign  the 
grades  E  and  S  (excellent  and  superior)  to  the  25  per 
cent  ranking  highest,  the  grades  I  and  F  (inferior  and 
failure)  to  the  25  per  cent  ranking  lowest,  and  the  grade 
M  (medium)  to  the  remaining  50  per  cent  between.  At 
present  the  distribution  of  the  grades  E  and  S  and  I  and 
F  among  the  groups  of  students  ranking  highest  and 
lowest,  respectively,  is  left  to  the  individual  teachers. 
The  committee  on  grading,  after  the  close  of  each  sem- 
ester, publishes  a  statistical   table  showing  the  char- 

'"  Scientific  Grading  of  College  Students,"  Ra)rmond  W.  Sies,  Pro- 
fessor of  School  Administration,  University  of  Pittsburg,  1912.  (Re- 
print from  Univ.  of  Pittsburg  Bulletin,  vol.  VIII,  no.  21.) 


340  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

acter  of  the  grading  of  each  teacher  for  the  semester 
and  since  the  inauguration  of  the  present  system.  This 
table  is  circulated  among  the  faculty.  Teachers  whose 
grading  deviates  markedly  from  the  standards  estab- 
lished are  called  to  account  by  the  committee  and  asked 
to  justify  their  failure  to  conform.  The  grading  of 
teachers  of  small  classes  is  expected  to  conform  to  the 
standards  only  when  taken  through  a  series  of  semesters 
or  years.  This  new  system  has  very  largely  eliminated 
the  diversity  of  practice  in  grading  at  Missouri." 

It  seems  entirely  within  the  range  of  possibility  that 
some  such  scientific  method  for  measuring  achievement 
through  examinations  will  in  time  be  so  perfected  and 
its  operation  be  found  so  satisfactory  as  to  lead  to  its 
general  adoption  by  college  and  university  faculties. 
In  fact,  it  may  readily  become  more  general  in  its  appli- 
cation; for  there  is  no  reason  why  it  might  not  apply 
to  all  systems  of  markings  where  different  portions  of 
the  individual's  work  are  to  be  graded  by  different 
teachers.  This  would  include  all  high-school  work  and 
might  also  readily  apply  to  the  elementary  or  inter- 
mediate school  where  the  work  is  departmentally  ar- 
ranged. There  would  also  readily  appear  a  field  for  its 
use  in  teacher's  examinations  where  the  markings  of 
subjects  are  by  different  persons.  There  is  certainly 
room  for  some  such  improvement  in  all  these  depart- 
ments of  educational  classifying  by  grades. 


CHAPTER  XX 
ACTIVITIES  AND  RELATIONS   OF  THE  SCHOOL 

There  are  certain  activities  and  relations  of  the  schools 
having  to  do  more  or  less  directly  with  the  work  of  in- 
struction which  have  not  yet  received  the  attention  they 
deserve  in  this  treatment  of  the  subject.  In  all  types 
and  at  all  stages  of  educational  work  some  more  or  less 
definite  daily  programme  of  study,  recitation,  exercise, 
or  lecture  is  usually  followed.  The  arrangement  of 
such  a  programme,  in  any  case,  requires  some  care  with 
reference  to  certain  principles  involved. 

I.     The  Daily  Programme 

Children  in  the  early  years  of  school  work  need  little 
time  for  study.  About  all  they  can  do  between  recita- 
tions will  be  to  engage  in  some  seat  work,  such  as  writ- 
ing, drawing,  cutting,  and  construction,  with  materials 
ready  to  hand;  or  they  may  engage  in  directed  play. 
Gradually,  as  they  advance  in  age  and  grade,  they  should 
be  taught  the  steps  in  preparation  of  lessons  or  exer- 
cises. As  they  advance  into  the  period  of  sustained 
thinking,  even  of  limited  duration,  they  should  be  set 
problems  which  call  for  such  mental  exercise  along  dif- 
ferent lines  as  represented  in  the  different  subjects. 
But  always  the  period  for  such  work  should  be  timed 
to  correspond  to  the  limitations  of  the  power  of  atten- 
tion to  one  thing  and  of  the  pupils'  range  of  mental 

341 


342  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

action.  Likewise,  in  the  recitation  period,  the  time 
should  vary,  gradually  increasing  upward.  The  teacher 
should  ever  be  alert  to  note  the  flagging  interest  and 
lack  of  attention  which  mark  the  limit  of  successful  ef- 
fort for  a  given  period. 

There  is  no  finer  test  of  the  teacher's  ability  than 
the  degree  of  success  with  which  the  adjustment  of  as- 
signed study  work  and  that  undertaken  in  the  recita- 
tion are  seen  to  correspond  to  the  present  attainments 
of  the  members  of  a  class  as  to  power  of  sustained  effort 
in  attention.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  more  fruit- 
ful source  of  waste  and  of  the  forming  of  bad  habits  on 
the  part  of  those  taught  than  the  failure  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  to  regulate  the  periods  on  a  basis  at  least 
approximately  normal. 

Not  only  age  and  degree  of  advancement  but  also  the 
character  of  the  subject  or  exercise  have  to  do  with  the 
determination  of  these  periods.  Further,  the  time  of 
day,  the  physical  condition  of  those  taught,  various 
unavoidable  distractions  will  come  in  for  consideration 
as  modifying  causes.  Only  those  who  intuitively  grasp 
and  sense  these  things,  or  those  who,  through  careful 
study  of  psychology,  have  mastered  the  principles  in- 
volved and  their  application,  can  be  intrusted,  without 
thoughtful  advice  and  direction,  with  the  adjusting  of 
the  time  factors  of  the  daily  programme. 

2.    The  Problem  of  Fatigue 

Expressed  in  another  way,  it  is  the  problem  of  fatigue 
that  is  to  be  hourly,  daily  met  and  solved.  Under  the 
old  methods  of  the  school,  people  thought  to  compel  at- 
tention to  study.  It  mattered  not  if  the  child's  mental 
alertness  was  gone,  the  ability  to  fix  attention  on  a  given 
exercise  exhausted.     The  everlasting  ''you  must,"  with 


ACTIVITIES  AND  RELATIONS  OF  SCHOOL     343 

threatened  punishment  for  failure,  has  had  to  yield  to 
the  psychological  law.  This  does  not  mean  soft  peda- 
gogy. It  is  not  the  difficult  things  that  come  later  in 
the  exercises  of  the  school  that  cause  the  trouble  and 
are  to  be  avoided  or  explained  away  by  the  teacher. 
Real  interest  in  doing,  in  overcoming,  will  carry  the 
pupil  over  these  hard  places,  leaving  him  with  the  fine 
reward  of  conscious  success  at  the  end.  Fatigue  is  not 
distaste  for  doing  a  thing.  It  is  nature's  cry  of  *'  enough  " 
and  must  be  heeded,  or  unpleasant,  possibly  disastrous, 
results  may  follow.  This  does  not  always  require  cessa- 
tion of  effort.  A  variation  in  occupation  or  exercise 
may  serve  the  purpose.  In  the  earlier  grades  brief  pe- 
riods of  attention  to  learning  processes  should  be  fol- 
lowed by  play,  preferably  in  the  open  air.  As  pupils 
progress,  the  periods  for  the  recitation  or  for  study  may 
gradually  increase  in  length.  As  this  abiHty  to  attend 
and  later  to  concentrate  for  much  longer  periods  upon 
problems  of  business  or  of  one's  profession  or  other  call- 
ing is  fundamental  to  successful  living,  its  normal  and 
full  development  in  the  process  of  education  becomes 
very  important. 

3.    Value  of  the  Play  Instinct 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  well  that  the  play  instinct  be 
kept  alive  throughout  not  only  the  period  of  one's  school- 
days but  to  the  end  of  life.  For,  while  variation  of  ac- 
tivity may  be  made  to  serve  more  and  more  as  a  means 
of  relief  from  fatiguing  effort,  there  is  nothing  quite 
equal  to  the  spontaneous,  happy  spirit  of  play  to  relieve 
the  tension  to  one's  nervous  system  which  comes  from 
any  prolonged  attention  to  a  sustained  line  of  thought, 
no  matter  what  may  be  the  subject.  Equally  vital,  as 
well  as  difficult  of  adjustment,  therefore,  is  this  problem 


344  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

of  providing,  in  the  programme  of  school  exercises,  for 
proper  periods  of  relaxation  in  healthful  sport. 

4.     Theory  of  Rest 

There  will  still  remain  the  need  of  rest,  which  also 
should  be  a  matter  of  care  at  all  stages  of  school  work, 
and  especially  with  the  very  young,  the  abnormal,  or 
the  underfed.  Somewhere,  either  in  the  home  or  in  the 
school,  or  in  both,  the  human  race,  especially  the  Ameri- 
can branch  of  it,  needs  to  be  instructed  in  the  art  of 
resting  and  also  in  discovering  the  need  and  the  value 
of  rest  as  a  means  of  increasing  one's  happiness  and 
power  of  accomplishment.  We  hear  much  about  the 
cause  of  temperance,  and  that  is  well.  But  we  go  on 
disregarding  one  of  the  most  fundamental  causes  of  in- 
temperance by  neglecting  to  study  and  teach  the  art 
of  resting  and  its  proper  application.  If,  in  our  school 
work,  by  the  introduction  of  certain  features  of  the 
Montessori  method  or  by  any  other  means,  we  may 
instil  from  early  childhood  right  habits  and,  later,  prin- 
ciples of  rest  as  related  to  accomplishment,  no  doubt  we 
shall  have  gone  a  long  way  toward  the  elimination  of 
a  real  national  weakness. 

5.    The  Lunch  Problem 

Closely  alUed  to  problems  of  recreation,  fatigue,  and 
rest  is  the  lunch  problem  of  the  schools.  The  matter 
of  properly  nourishing  the  body  in  these  days  of  com- 
plexity of  food  supply  with  all  the  uncertainty  of  source 
and  quaUty  grows  yearly  more  serious.  The  situation 
is  further  aggravated  in  our  cities  by  the  confectioners' 
stores  which  always  spring  up  in  close  proximity  to  the 
school.  Could  it  be  possible  that  some  day  there  should 
be  employed  by  each  school  unit  of  control  large  enough 


ACTIVITIES  AND  RELATIONS  OF  SCHOOL     345 

to  support  such  a  thing  an  expert  whose  duties  should 
include  the  recommendation  to  parents  of  what  to  in- 
clude in  the  child's  lunch  either  brought  to  be  eaten 
cold  at  school  or  served  at  the  home  dinner-table?  Does 
not  this  midday  refreshment  bear  a  sufficiently  close 
relationship  to  the  normal  work  of  instruction  to  war- 
rant such  treatment?  Already  our  large  city  schools 
are  attempting  a  remedy  by  providing  the  warm  lunch- 
eon at  cost.  In  several  instances,  also,  the  underfed 
are  being  cared  for  by  providing  them  with  good  milk 
to  drink  at  the  schools  for  specials,  where  most  of  those 
suffering  from  this  and  other  forms  of  malnutrition  go. 
In  one  city,^  at  least,  provision  is  made  by  the  student 
organizations  of  some  of  the  high  schools  for  supplying 
sanitary  candies  and  other  sweets  at  school  on  a  basis 
of  actual  cost  of  making  and  handling. 

6.     The  Problem  in  Higher  Institutions 

The  situation  as  regards  all  these  problems  affecting 
the  daily  routine  of  school  exercises  is  at  least  as  unsat- 
isfactory, proportionately,  in  the  case  of  our  higher  in- 
stitutions of  learning,  commonly  speaking.  The  general 
disregard  of  any  thorough  treatment,  either  sane  or 
sanitary,  of  problems  of  recreation,  rest,  and  refreshment 
in  connection  with  student  Ufe  at  these  institutions  is 
simply  astounding  to  one  who  has  developed  any  sen- 
sibiHties  toward  such  situations.  Can  it  be  possible  that 
we  may  adequately  justify  these  practices  leading  to  a 
general  devitalizing  of  this  body  of  what  may  readily 
be  considered  the  choicest  of  our  young  men  and  women 
— solely  on  the  ground  of  the  inviolability  of  their  re- 
cently acquired  personal  freedom?  Has  the  State,  has 
society,  which  establishes  and  maintains  these  institu- 
'  The  city  of  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 


346  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

tions  of  learning  for  the  public  good,  no  voice,  no  right, 
no  duty  in  attempting  to  regulate  these  practices? 

7.     Meaning  of  Recitation  and  Study  Periods 

The  value  and  the  legitimate  uses  of  the  study  period 
and  of  periods  for  recitation,  exercise,  or  lecture  need  to 
be  understood  and  appreciated  by  all  those  having  a 
part  in  the  work  of  instruction.  They  should  be  ap- 
proached, they  will  be  approached,  by  the  true  teacher 
as  one  accepts  a  rare  opportunity.  They  have  been 
looked  forward  to — prepared  for.  The  next  thing  in 
order  is  clearly  seen,  together  with  the  normal  process 
that  is  to  unfold  with  the  steps  which  follow.  There 
is  no  dallying  over  forgotten  relations;  no  filling  in  of 
time  with  aimless  or  empty  questions  or  remarks;  no 
uncertain  note;  no  careless  turning  aside  to  waste  time 
on  questions  merely  incidental  or  unrelated  entirely  to 
the  real,  vital  purposes  of  the  hour.  The  well-directed 
recitation  will  vary  from  day  to  day.  Now  it  will  be 
to  test  the  pupils  on  principles  to  be  applied;  again 
will  come  the  formal  drill  on  something  which  must 
become  automatic;  next  will  follow  a  general  discus- 
sion of  some  event,  or  character,  or  institution,  or  proc- 
ess; or  there  may  appear  the  need  of  careful  guidance 
in  preparation  of  work.  To-day  the  teacher  may  utilize 
the  time  for  expositional  work;  to-morrow  the  pupils 
may  do  all  the  talking.  Whatever  may  be  uppermost 
at  a  given  time,  there  will  always  be  a  definite  aim  in 
view,  a  certain  work  to  be  accomplished,  as  part  of  the 
larger  general  purpose  which  a  given  subject  may  rep- 
resent in  the  whole  process  of  education. 


ACTIVITIES  AND  RELATIONS  OF  SCHOOL     347 


8.     The  School  as  a  Community 

The  more  nearly  the  school  represents  a  community 
organization,  at  least  in  miniature,  the  greater  will  be- 
come its  vital  force  in  the  larger  community  of  which  it 
is,  or  may  be,  an  idealized  counterpart.  We  have  had 
too  much  of  the  completely  isolated  type  of  school  for 
the  good  of  education.  Even  when  we  speak  of  the 
"idealized  counterpart"  the  thought  is  not  that  the 
school  should  be  idealized  away  from  its  normal  envi- 
ronment and  contacts  with  wholesome  interests  of  every- 
day Uving.  It  is  rather  that  the  school  should  repre- 
sent these  wholesome  interests  in  proper  adjustment 
and  as  far  as  possible  without  the  imwholesome  influ- 
ences to  be  found  at  work  in  most  communities.  In 
order  to  do  this  there  will  come  days  when  the  regular 
daily  programme  will  need  to  be  varied  or  set  aside 
entirely.  Such  special  days  and  exercises  carefully 
chosen  as  representing  ideals  to  be  emphasized  and  in- 
stilled are  an  essential  part  of  education.  But  there  is 
always  a  chance  on  these  occasions  of  losing  sight  of  the 
real  ideal  and  developing  undesirable  habits  instead. 

Among  the  special  days  and  exercises  above  referred 
to  are  the  birthdays  of  our  great  national  characters, 
traditional  days  of  a  semi-reUgious  character,  great 
events  in  literary  history,  or  special  days  for  certain 
seasons  of  the  year.  Then  there  are  the  special  oppor- 
tunities for  exhibiting  achievement  in  such  interests  as 
Enghsh  expression,  in  rhetoricals;  musical  accompUsh- 
ment,  vocal  and  instrumental;  art  work,  pure  or  ap- 
plied; various  other  accomplishments,  as  in  manual  and 
household  arts,  etc.  When  the  school  has  succeeded 
well  in  taking  on  the  community  aspect  these  things 


348  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

will  all  come  in  as  a  natural  part  of  community  life, 
and  will  thus  be  greatly  enhanced  in  their  educational 
value  and  also  in  the  interest  aroused  on  the  part  of 
the  community  at  large.  For  instance,  the  music  and 
literary  exercises  may  come,  as  a  matter  of  course,  in 
the  expression  of  community  feeling  on  some  memo- 
rable occasion  to  be  celebrated.  Another  illustration 
would  be  found  in  a  school  where  efficiency  in  house- 
hold and  manual  arts  was  made  manifest  in  various 
schemes  of  interior  furnishings  or  decorations  of  school- 
rooms for  special  purposes.  This  would  also  bring  into 
the  presentation  much  of  art  and  design.  Always  it  is 
the  usual  formal  set  programmes  and  exercises  that  the 
children  and  older  students  dread  and  shrink  from, 
while  those  things  which  are  natural  and  obvious  as  a 
part  of  the  community  life  are  done  with  readiness  and 
real  pleasure.  It  need  scarcely  be  added  that  when 
such  a  condition  exists  these  things  are  also  better  done. 

9.     School  Savings-Banks  and  School  Gardens 

In  connection  with  this  community  spirit  of  the  school, 
the  school  garden  and  the  school  savings-bank  have  be- 
come important  features  in  many  city  school  systems. 
Among  cities  which  lead  in  the  school-garden  feature 
are  Cleveland,  Memphis,  and  Los  Angeles.  Cleveland 
was  the  first  to  organize  a  regular  department  for  this 
work  with  the  appointment  of  a  curator  to  supervise 
the  work.  Memphis  has  also  taken  steps  for  a  similar 
supervision  under  the  direction  of  Superintendent  L.  E. 
Wolfe.  Los  Angeles  has  over  sixty  gardens  in  opera- 
tion, according  to  the  191 2  report.  The  high  schools  of 
the  latter  city  are  particularly  strong  in  this  respect. 
Regular  courses  are  given  in  small  gardening,  horticul- 
ture, and  landscape  work.    At  the  Gardena  high  school, 


ACTIVITIES  AND  RELATIONS  OF  SCHOOL     349 

which  is  the  agricultural  high  school  of  the  city  under 
the  scheme  of  differentiation  which  Superintendent 
Frances  has  established,  is  the  most  extensive  plant  of 
all.  Here  about  ten  acres  of  ground  are  available.  The 
courses  include,  with  those  given  above,  farm  crops, 
dairying,  and  poultry-raising.  The  system  is  fully  or- 
ganized for  the  city,  with  a  supervisor  and  several  as- 
sistants. 

The  school  savings-banks  are  an  older  development 
in  the  schools.  The  first  of  these  is  said  to  have  been 
started  in  1885  in  Long  Island  City,  N.  Y.  The  ob- 
ject of  this  feature  is  to  cultivate  habits  of  thrift.  In 
191 2  the  reports  showed  twenty-five  States  as  having 
savings  systems  established  in  some  of  their  schools. 
In  some  instances  this  business  feature  has  assumed 
rather  large  proportions.  In  Pennsylvania,  for  instance, 
the  reports  for  January  i,  191 2,  showed  a  balance  to 
depositors  of  $344,769.87;  Ohio  reports  for  the  same 
year  gave  $109,610.65;  and  California,  $77,513.52. 
Seventeen  other  States  showed  balances  ranging  from 
$1,000  to  nearly  $70,000. 

10.    High-School  Management  of  Business  Affairs 

Closely  allied  to  this  latter  interest,  as  tending  to 
develop  thrift  and  also  a  wholesome  community  spirit, 
is  the  plan  of  having  the  students  of  high  schools  man- 
age all  business  affairs  of  the  high-school  community. 
Here  Los  Angeles  comes  to  the  fore  again  with  a  fine 
organization  of  student  activities  and  interests  in  which 
the  teachers  freely  join.  They  assume  the  business 
management  not  only  of  their  athletic,  social,  musical, 
dramatic,  and  literary  events,  but  also  of  book  ex- 
changes, confectionery  booths,  and  cafeteria  lunch 
service.    If  they  need  to  construct  a  tennis-court  or  an 


350  ADMINISTRATION  OF   EDUCATION 

amphitheatre  for  athletic  purposes,  or  provide  a  print- 
ing outfit  or  a  moving-picture  equipment,  they  organize 
stock  companies,  selling  stock  to  students  and  teachers, 
and  go  ahead.  And  here  comes  in  a  bit  of  fine  civic 
training.  No  one  receives  any  financial  gain  out  of  these 
enterprises.  A  faculty  member,  as  treasurer,  checks  all 
accounts.  If  there  is  any  surplus  after  all  bills  are  paid, 
this  goes  to  a  general  school  or  school-community  fund. 
In  one  instance,  at  least,  a  portion  of  the  proceeds  is 
used  to  defray  the  expenses  of  indigent  students  in 
order  that  they  may  continue  in  school. 

II.     Extension  Work  of  the  School 

This  active  relationship  of  the  school,  not  only  as  a 
community  within  itself  but  also  and  especially  as  con- 
cerns the  larger  community  of  which  it  is  a  part,  bears 
a  very  close  and  intimate  relationship  to  the  sum  total 
of  the  achievement  of  instruction.  It  becomes  a  power- 
ful factor  in  estabhshing  the  school  in  the  minds  and 
hearts  of  the  community  to  which  it  looks  for  its  con- 
tinuation and  support.  In  many  of  our  cities  the 
schools  are  coming  gradually  to  be  looked  upon  as  social 
centres.  In  the  more  progressive  cities  and  districts 
schools  are  being  built  with  this  idea  definitely  in  view. 
Rooms  are  provided  for  literary  clubs,  for  lectures,  for 
public  assemblies  of  various  kinds.  Laboratory  and  li- 
brary facilities  are  being  more  widely  shared  by  those  in 
school  and  out.  Provision  is  being  made  for  the  social 
life  of  the  young  as  well  as  for  the  training  in  night- 
schools  of  those  out  of  school  who  are  thirsting  for 
knowledge.  All  are  familiar  with  the  elaborate  system 
of  public  evening  lectures  conducted  by  the  schools  of 
New  York  City.  These  lectures  are  free  and  are  con- 
ducted at  many  different  centres — 174  according  to  the 


ACTIVITIES  AND  RELATIONS  OF  SCHOOL     351 

191 2  report.  The  lectures  offered  are  technical  in  char- 
acter. The  centres  are  presided  over  by  speciaUsts,  and 
the  lectures  grouped  under  three  headings  as  to  subjects: 
(i)  literature,  history,  the  fine  arts,  and  social  subjects; 
(2)  science  and  industries;  (3)  geography  and  descrip- 
tion of  countries.  The  same  report  (1912)  shows  the 
total  number  of  lectures  to  have  been  5,573,  with  an 
average  nightly  attendance  of  179  and  an  aggregate  at- 
tendance of  1,000,190. 

In  the  city  of  Cleveland  the  lectures  are  of  a  popu- 
lar character.  Milwaukee  has  developed  a  strong  sys- 
tem of  lectures,  mostly  illustrated,  which  are  proving  a 
great  stimulus  to  social  betterment.  Many  other  cities, 
ranging  from  most  of  the  leading  large  centres  to  smaller 
cities  generally,  are  undertaking  similar  lines  of  work. 
All  of  this  is  helping  to  bring  about  that  condition  nec- 
essary in  order  to  so  distribute  the  results  of  progress 
in  learning  among  all  the  people  as  to  preserve  such  a 
healthful  state  of  general  intelligence  on  the  part  of 
those  whose  school  days  are  over  as  the  character  of 
our  social  order  demands. 

There  is  also  a  corresponding  passive  or  receptive 
side  to  the  larger  social  relationships  of  the  school.  The 
enlistment  of  patrons  in  these  social  aspects  of  educa- 
tion through  the  organization  of  patrons'  clubs  has 
marked  the  beginning  of  better  things  educationally 
in  a  number  of  centres  where  now  are  to  be  found  some 
of  the  best  educational  systems  in  our  country. 

12.    Vacation  Schools 

A  perennial  problem  of  the  school  is  the  vacation 
time.  If  all  the  pupils  could  be  pleasantly  and  profit- 
ably employed,  at  play  or  at  work,  in  their  homes  or 
through  home  influences,  the  situation  would  be  different; 


352  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

no  problem  would  exist.  But  such  is  not  the  case  in 
most  instances.  The  result  is  worse  than  a  mere  break- 
ing off  from  all  the  Hnes  of  development  set  up  in  the 
school.  In  the  case  of  many  of  the  pupils,  especially 
of  the  elementary  grades,  new  and  abnormal  Hnes  of 
development  are  started.  In  the  cities,  where  many  of 
the  children  are  thrown  upon  the  streets  for  the  ordi- 
nary long  summer  vacation,  the  problem  becomes  acute. 

There  are  not  lacking  other  and  urgent  reasons  for 
the  estabUshment  of  vacation  schools  as  these  educa- 
tional organizations  are  most  frequently  called.  The 
school  period  of  many  of  the  children  is  limited  at  least 
to  the  legal  limit  by  reason  of  economic  pressure.  The 
summer  term  makes  it  possible  to  gain  the  length  of 
one  ordinary  school  year  in  three  or,  at  most,  four  sum- 
mers of  attendance.  Such  an  extension  of  time  also 
gives  those  who  have  fallen  behind  through  illness  or 
other  enforced  absence,  or  by  reason  of  mental  slowness 
in  certain  subjects,  an  opportunity  to  make  up  lost 
ground  and  so  keep  out  of  the  classes  for  "specials." 

The  first  of  these  vacation  schools  was  opened  in 
Newark,  N.  J.,  where  in  191 2  the  first  experiment  was 
also  made  in  the  all-year  school.  The  earlier  forms  of 
these  schools,  and,  indeed,  the  form  now  most  common, 
was  intended  especially  to  furnish  occupation  under 
suitable  surroundings  for  children  in  the  more  con- 
gested portions  of  cities.  These  schools  undertook  such 
exercises  as  directed  play,  singing,  nature  study,  and 
some  light  manual  work.  More  recently  another  type 
has  developed,  which  is  distinctly  academic  in  character. 
The  all-year  schools  of  Newark  are  examples.  These 
were  so  successful  the  first  year  that  the  number  of 
schools  was  greatly  increased  for  the  sunmier  of  19 13. 


ACTIVITIES  AND  RELATIONS  OF  SCHOOL     353 


13.    The  Ail-Year  Type  of  School 

The  courses  in  these  all-year  schools  are  arranged  so 
that  the  work  corresponds  to  the  regular  school  pro- 
gramme. The  regular  school  year  is  divided  into  three 
terms  of  twelve  weeks  each,  leaving  twelve  weeks  for 
the  summer  term  or  quarter.  In  this  way  slow  pupils 
may  gain  time,  while  those  who  must  shorten  the  school 
period  make  more  rapid  progress  while  in  school.  Cleve- 
land conducts  a  vacation  school  of  this  character.  In 
some  cases,  however,  the  summer  or  vacation  school  is 
organized  chiefly  for  those  who  are  deUnquent  in  their 
work.  Such  a  review  school  is  typified  by  the  work 
done  in  Saint  Louis  by  recommendation  of  Superinten- 
dent Blewett.  This  work  also  seems  to  have  proven  suc- 
cessful and  to  meet  a  real  demand. 

In  the  all-year  schools  of  Newark  there  were  enrolled, 
in  the  summer  of  191 2,  764  grammar  pupils,  1,695  pri- 
mary, and  390  kindergarten,  or  a  total  of  2,849,  The 
average  attendance  was  2,397,  or  91.7  per  cent.  In  the 
Saint  Louis  experiment  in  191 1  there  were  in  attendance 
in  grade  schools  1,592  and  in  the  high  schools  676  pupils, 
or  a  total  of  2,268.  At  the  beginning  of  the  last  week 
of  the  term  (seven  weeks  of  six  days  each,  morning  ses- 
sions only)  the  total  membership  was  1,595.  These  fig- 
ures are  given  here  merely  to  show  to  what  extent  the 
people  have  responded  where  opportunities  have  been 
furnished,  on  the  same  level  as  regular  school  work,  for 
summer  attendance  at  school. 

Evidently  sentiment  is  rapidly  crystallizing  in  favor 
of  such  an  extension  of  the  school  programme,  already 
an  estabUshed  practice  in  many  higher  institutions  of 
learning.     The  State  legislature  of  Wisconsin  in  191 1 


354  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

enacted  a  law  permitting  cities  of  that  State  to  organ- 
ize and  maintain  vacation  schools.  As  in  all  other  move- 
ments for  improved  and  enlarged  educational  facilities, 
the  problem  of  financing  is  involved.  If,  as  is  doubt- 
less true,  it  can  be  shown  that  such  a  movement  is  but 
the  shifting  of  a  social  burden  with  a  distinct  gain  by 
reason  of  the  shift,  there  can  be  Httle  doubt  but  that, 
with  the  general  readjustment  going  on  in  our  schools, 
the  all-year  session  will  become  a  fixed  pohcy  of  States 
and  communities  generally,  or,  at  least,  of  city  com- 
munities. 

What  has  been  said  in  regard  to  the  school  as  related 
to  the  community  may  be  said  with  special  emphasis  of 
normal  schools  and  universities.  For  both  of  these 
types  there  is  a  great  work,  in  the  larger  community 
of  the  State  as  a  whole,  in  conveying  to  teachers  at 
work  in  the  schools  the  results  of  such  laboratory  work 
in  education  as  these  institutions  may  be  called  upon 
to  do.  In  the  nature  of  the  case,  most  of  this  would  de- 
volve upon  the  universities  as  the  institutions  organized 
more  specifically  for  carrying  forward  research  in  the 
field  of  educational  progress.  At  the  same  time,  there 
is  a  very  promising  field  for  the  normal  schools  in  bring- 
ing up  the  training  of  our  elementary  teachers  in  ele- 
mentary psychology,  the  theory  of  instruction,  and  espe- 
cially the  technic  of  the  classroom.  This  is  a  field 
of  activity  for  these  higher  institutions  the  possibiHties 
of  which  have  scarcely  been  touched  as  yet. 

We  may  say,  indeed,  that  the  university  in  particular 
has  for  its  community  work  in  the  State  the  whole  field 
of  industrial  and  civic  interests.  In  the  acceptance  of 
this  obligation  our  colleges  of  agriculture  are  far  in  the 
lead,  a  fact  due  in  no  small  degree  to  the  impetus  given 
by  the  more  recent  federal  grants  of  subsidies  for  the 


ACTIVITIES  AND  RELATIONS  OF  SCHOOL     355 

carrying  forward  of  this  particular  department  of  State- 
wide education.  Among  institutions  undertaking  to 
meet  this  responsibility  in  a  broader  sense,  as  including 
general  civic  interests,  the  State  of  Wisconsin  is  clearly 
entitled  to  the  distinction  of  leadership. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

PRIVATE  EDUCATION  AND  BENEFACTIONS  AS 
RELATED  TO  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 

I.     Growth  of  Private  Compared  with  Public 
Education 

No  discussion  of  educational  administration  in  a  de- 
mocracy like  our  own  could  be  complete  without  some 
reference  to  the  work  done  through  private  initiative 
or  beneficence.  In  view  of  the  history  of  educational 
development  in  this  coimtry,  it  is  but  natural  that  there 
should  have  been  estabhshed  large  numbers  of  schools 
as  private  enterprises  or  as  a  part  of  systems  of  educa- 
tion of  a  religious  character  and  serving  often  as  propa- 
ganda for  sectarian  reUgious  doctrines.  With  the  fuller 
development  of  a  system  of  pubUc  education  the  num- 
ber of  such  schools  has  relatively  decreased,  as  shown 
by  statistics.  The  United  States  Commissioner's  Report 
for  191 1  gives  the  following:  In  1890  there  were  12,- 
494,233  children  receiving  instruction  in  pubUc  elemen- 
tary schools  and  1,116,300  in  private  schools  of  the 
same  class.  In  19 10  the  corresponding  numbers  were 
16,898,791  and  1,441,037,  respectively,  showing  a  rela- 
tively large  increase  in  the  public  schools.  For  schools 
of  secondary  grade  the  numbers  for  the  same  years  were 
221,522  and  145,481,  in  1890,  and  938,437  and  193,029, 
in  1 9 10,  thus  showing  a  still  greater  relative  increase 
for  the  public  schools  of  secondary  grade.     For  students 

356 


PRIVATE  EDUCATION  AND  BENEFACTIONS      357 

receiving  higher  instruction  the  figures  are,  for  1890, 
43,393  and  91,849;  for  1910,  159,713  and  180,915.  In 
this  case,  while  the  number  of  students  attending  pri- 
vate institutions  still  leads,  the  difference  has  been  re- 
duced from  48,456  to  21,202,  or  by  more  than  one  half. 
The  higher  instruction  here  includes  (i)  universities  and 
colleges,  (2)  schools  of  medicine,  law,  and  theology,  and 
(3)  normal  schools. 

2.    The  Problem  Presented 

Thus,  in  an  open  field  where  private  initiative  has 
been  entirely  unrestrained,  public  education  is  steadily 
gaining  ground.  This  freedom  has  left  individuals  or 
organizations  practically  without  guidance  or  restric- 
tion in  the  establishment  of  various  types  of  schools. 
As  President  Pritchett  puts  it  in  his  191 1  report:  "In 
all  but  a  few  of  the  States  of  the  Union  any  association 
of  men  who,  for  educational  or  business  reasons  or  as  a 
matter  of  local  pride,  desire  to  start  a  school  or  college 
may  incorporate  under  the  State  law  and  obtain  the 
right  to  grant  all  the  degrees  that  higher  institutions 
may  confer.  This  lack  of  supervision  both  on  tlie  part 
of  the  general  government  and,  to  a  large  extent,  on  the 
part  of  the  State  governments  has  resulted  not  only  in 
an  extraordinarily  large  nutnber  of  institutions  bearing 
the  name  of  college  or  university,  but  it  has  resulted  also 
in  the  fact  that  these  institutions  have  become  involved 
in  local  rivalries,  so  that  they  represent  in  very  small 
measure  national  ideals  or  national  purposes."  Doctor 
Kerschensteiner,  in  his  comparison  of  public  education 
in  Germany  and  in  the  United  States,  voices  a  simi- 
lar thought  when  he  says:  "Excessive  freedom  [in  the 
United  States]  leads  to  the  development  of  private  edu- 
cational institutions  to  an  unusual  degree,  and,  since 


358  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

they  are  frequently  established  for  profit  rather  than 
for  cultural  aims,  or  in  other  cases  are  denominational 
in  purpose,  they  may  become  a  real  disadvantage  to 
the  State." 

3.    What  Should  Be  the  Attitude  of  the  State? 

These  views,  coming  from  men  of  such  eminence  edu- 
cationally and  in  positions  to  judge  broadly  and  in  an 
entirely  impartial  spirit,  cannot  pass  unheeded  by  any 
loyal  citizen  of  our  republic  to  whom  they  may  come. 
It  would  certainly  seem  that  where  such  great  interests 
are  at  stake  States  should  not  hesitate  to  act  in  such 
maimer  as  to  protect  the  nation  against  any  possible 
organization  of  forces  Hkely  to  prove  inimical  to  our 
cherished  ideals  and  institutions.  In  the  first  place,  it 
seems  fair  to  say  that  no  educational  institution  found 
to  be  established  and  maintained  purely  as  a  commer- 
cial enterprise  should  be  permitted  to  receive  or  retain 
a  charter.  And  in  deciding  all  such  cases  the  State 
should  have  the  benefit  of  the  doubt.  In  the  second 
place,  schools  maintained  by  religious  denominations, 
where  a  large  part  or  all  of  the  pupils'  legal  school 
years  is  spent  in  such  training,  should  be  required  to 
give  ample  instruction  in  the  history  of  our  coimtry  and 
in  a  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  obligations  of  citizen- 
ship. They  should  also  be  required  to  use  every  oppor- 
tunity to  instil  our  national  ideals.  For  securing  the 
observation  of  such  requirements,  such  schools  or  insti- 
tutions would  necessarily  have  to  be  open  to  inspection 
by  the  State. 

It  may  be  said  of  any  non-State  institution  estab- 
lished for  educational  purposes  that  its  incorporation 
should  carry  with  it  the  obligation  to  uphold  our  na- 
tional life  and  institutions  and  to  do  nothing  to  hinder 


PRIVATE  EDUCATION  AND  BENEFACTIONS      359 

in  any  way  the  proper  development  and  efficiency  in 
operation  of  any  part  of  State  systems  of  education. 
How,  with  anything  short  of  such  regulation  and  super- 
vision, can  we  be  assured  that  we  are  not  harboring  in 
our  midst  some  propaganda  of  ideals  that  are  utterly 
inimical  to  democracy?  How  else  can  we  justify  com- 
pulsory-attendance laws?  There  are  in  our  midst,  to 
be  sure,  a  number  of  great  institutions  well  known  and 
revered  because  of  their  great  service  to  the  nation. 
They  sprang  from  the  same  spirit  of  liberty  and  inde- 
pendence which  actuated  those  who  founded  this  nation. 
There  are  others  of  later  origin  also,  established,  let  us 
believe,  out  of  an  unselfish  devotion  to  our  national  wel- 
fare. Let  it  not  be  supposed  that  any  of  these  are  to 
be  included  in  the  characterizations  given  in  what  pre- 
cedes or  follows. 

It  is  not  enough  that  the  founders  of  these  less  desir- 
able schools  and  institutions  declare  that  they  are  only 
catering  to  a  real  demand;  that  there  are  those  who 
prefer  to  be  in  a  class  by  themselves  and  to  pay  for  what 
they  get.  If  by  such  means  there  is  to  be  fostered  and 
perpetuated  an  unwholesome  class  feeling,  then  such 
schools  are  unfavorable  to  the  instilling  of  ideals  essen- 
tial to  democracy  and  should  be  dispensed  with.  Of 
all  institutions  which  should  not  be  permitted  to  exist 
unless  thoroughly  imbued  with  our  national  ideals  and 
spirit  are  those  institutions  which  are  to  train  the 
teachers  for  our  public  schools. 

4.    Educational  Foundations 

In  an  entirely  different  class,  however,  are  those  in- 
stitutions commonly  known  as  educational  foundations,^ 

'  A  very  good  description  of  these  is  to  be  found  in  the  U.  S.  Com- 
missioner's Report,  191 1,  vol.  I,  pp.  29-34. 


360  ADMINISTRATION   OF  EDUCATION 

Among  the  most  notable  of  these  are  the  following:  (i) 
The  Carnegie  Institution,  founded  in  Washington  in  1902 
and  incorporated  by  act  of  Congress.  The  initial  en- 
dowment was  $10,000,000,  subsequently  increased  to 
$22,000,000.  This  was  founded  for  the  purpose  of  co- 
operating with  other  institutions  so  as  to  encourage,  in 
a  broad  and  Hberal  manner,  such  research  and  discovery 
as  might  require  time  and  the  employment  of  able  men, 
and  to  seek  to  further  the  application  of  knowledge  to 
general  social  improvement.  (2)  The  same  year  there 
was  organized  the  General  Education  Board  in  New  York. 
The  charter  of  this  board  makes  its  function  broad  and 
far-reaching  in  all  departments  of  education.  It  was  es- 
tablished with  the  same  general  purpose  of  co-operation 
in  solving  the  more  difficult  problems  in  the  field  of  pub- 
lic education.  This  board  has  an  endowment  (191 1)  of 
$30,000,000,  the  gift  of  John  D.  Rockefeller.  It  also 
holds  in  trust  the  sum  of  $22,000,000  from  the  same 
source.  The  activities  of  this  board  have,  in  the  North, 
been  confined  to  the  promotion  of  higher  education. 
In  the  South  its  work  has  been  of  a  broader  nature. 
Much  has  been  done  through  this  board  to  build  up 
secondary  education  in  the  Southern  States.^  (3)  In 
1906  Mr.  Carnegie  again  came  forward  with  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Teaching.  The  endowment  was  first  set  at  $10-, 
000,000,  but  was  afterward  increased  to  $15,000,000. 
The  purpose  set  forth  by  the  donor  in  his  letter  to  the 
trustees  stated  that  the  revenue  from  this  fund  was  to 
be  used  to  provide  retiring  pensions  for  teachers  of 
universities,  colleges,  and  technical  schools  in  the  United 
States,  Canada,  and  Newfoimdland.  At  first,  State  in- 
stitutions were  not  to  be  included,  but  were  afterward 
1  More  fully  discussed  in  Chapter  XIV. 


PRIVATE  EDUCATION  AND  BENEFACTIONS      361 

added,  together  with  the  increase  of  $5,ooo,cx)0  in  the 
endowment.  (4)  The  Russell  Sage  Foundation  was  es- 
tablished by  Mrs.  Russell  Sage,  New  York,  1907,  by  a 
gift  of  $10,000,000,  Its  purpose,  as  set  forth  in  the 
charter,  included  research,  publication,  education,  and 
the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  various  charitable 
and  benevolent  enterprises.  Mrs.  Sage  stipulated  par- 
ticularly that  "it  should  be  its  aim  to  take  up  the  larger, 
more  dijOScult  problems,  and  to  take  them  up  so  far  as 
possible  in  such  a  manner  as  to  secure  co-operation  and 
aid  in  their  solution."  (5)  The  Jeanes  Fund  was  given 
by  Miss  Anna  T,  Jeanes,  of  Philadelphia,  in  1907.  The 
fund  was  $1,000,000  and  was  to  aid  in  securing  better 
rural  schools  for  the  negroes.  Reports  show  that  much 
effective  and  valuable  service  has  been  rendered  through 
the  administration  of  this  fund. 

It  is  due  the  founders  and  trustees  of  these  munificent 
additions  to  the  forces  for  educational  uphft  that  the 
American  public  generally  should  know  of  and  appre- 
ciate these  gifts  and  the  far-reaching  influences  for  good 
which  have  thus  been  set  up.  It  is  doubtless  true  that 
there  has  been  sometimes  in  the  administration  of  these 
various  foundations  an  inclination  to  overlook  the  re- 
strictions as  to  infringement  upon  the  free  evolution  and 
operation  of  public  educational  institutions.  It  is  prob- 
ably also  true  that  this  may  be  attributed  to  the  zeal 
of  administrators  along  their  own  preconceived  lines 
rather  than  to  any  fundamental  purpose  in  the  pro- 
jection of  these  beneficences.  Taking  the  work  already 
accomplished  by  them  as  an  index,  there  are  certainly 
great  possibilities  in  store,  much,  probably  most,  of 
which  will  have  a  more  or  less  direct  bearing  upon  pub- 
lic instruction  in  our  schools. 


CHAPTER  XXn 
THE  FORWARD  LOOK 

I.    Persistence  of  an  Educational  Ideal 

In  the  fourth  century  B.  C.  Aristotle  wrote  as  follows 
in  his  "Politics":  "No  one  will  doubt  that  the  legisla- 
tor should  direct  his  attention  above  all  to  the  education 
of  youth  or  that  the  neglect  of  education  does  harm  to 
states.  The  citizen  should  be  moulded  to  suit  the  form 
of  government  under  which  he  hves.  For  each  govern- 
ment has  a  peculiar  character  which  originally  formed 
and  which  continues  to  preserve  it.  The  character  of 
democracy  creates  democracy,  and  the  character  of  oli- 
garchy creates  oligarchy;  and  always  the  better  the 
character  the  better  the  government."  No  man  can 
estimate  what  tremendous  influence  over  the  minds  of 
succeeding  generations  of  statesmen  the  writings  of  this 
great  thinker  of  antiquity  have  wielded. 

In  1524  A.  D.,  or  nearly  two  thousand  years  after 
Aristotle,  Martin  Luther,  in  his  letter  to  the  city  offi- 
cials of  Germany  in  behalf  of  Christian  schools,  gave 
expression  to  these  memorable  words:  "Even  if  there 
were  no  soul,  as  I  have  already  said,  and  men  did  not 
need  schools  and  the  languages  for  the  sake  of  Chris- 
tianity and  the  Scriptures,  still,  for  the  establishment  of 
the  best  schools  everywhere,  both  for  boys  and  girls, 
this  consideration  is  of  itself  sufficient,  namely,  that  so- 
ciety, for  the  maintenance  of  civil  order  and  the  proper 

362 


THE  FORWARD  LOOK  363 

regulation  of  the  household,  needs  accomplished  and 
well- trained  men  and  women,"  Thus  early  under  the 
influences  of  the  Christian  era,  with  all  Europe  in  the 
turmoil  of  reorganization,  was  expressed  the  fundamen- 
tal quality  of  popular  education  as  a  means  of  perpetuat- 
ing the  home  and  the  state. 

Coming  on  down  the  centuries  for  about  two  hundred 
and  sixty  years  we  read  again,  in  the  language  of  the 
Ordinance  of  1787:  ''Religion,  morality,  and  knowledge 
being  necessary  to  good  government  and  the  happiness 
of  mankind,  schools  and  the  means  of  education  shall 
be  forever  encouraged.'/  As  practical  evidence  of  faith 
in  the  significance  of  this  statement,  the  framers  of  this 
remarkable  document  provided  a  substantial  basis  for 
the  endowment  of  public  education  in  the  States,  yet 
unborn,  of  the  vast  Northwest. 

"If  a  nation  expects  to  be  ignorant  and  free  in  a  state 
of  civilization,"  wrote  Thomas  Jefferson  in  1816,  "it  ex- 
pects what  never  was  and  never  will  be.  The  functions 
of  every  government  have  propensities  to  command 
at  will  the  liberty  and  property  of  their  constituents. 
There  is  no  safe  deposit  for  these  but  with  the  people 
themselves;  nor  can  they  be  safe  with  them  without 
information."  In  1845,  after  having  led  in  that  great 
educational  revival  in  New  England  which  brought 
about  the  establishment  of  normal  schools  and  gave  Mas- 
sachusetts a  State  board  of  education,  Horace  Mann,  the 
first  secretary  of  that  board,  wrote  in  his  educational  re- 
port for  that  year:  "Our  common  schools  are  a  system 
of  unsurpassable  grandeur  and  efficiency.  Their  influ- 
ences reach,  with  more  or  less  directness  and  intensity, 
all  the  children  belonging  to  the  State.  They  act  upon 
these  children  at  the  most  impressible  period  of  their 
existence,  imparting  qualities  of  mind  and  heart  which 


364  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

will  be  magnified  by  diffusion  and  deepened  by  time, 
until  they  will  be  involved  into  national  character,  into 
weal  or  woe,  into  renown  or  ignorance;  and,  at  last,  will 
stamp  their  ineffaceable  seal  upon  our  history." 

Advancing  another  half  century  in  American  history, 
we  find  again  the  thread  of  thought  clearly  expressed, 
in  1898,  by  Woodrow  Wilson,  now  President  of  the 
United  States,  in  the  following  words:  "Popular  edu- 
cation is  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  those  condi- 
tions of  freedom,  political  and  social,  which  are  indis- 
pensable to  free  individual  development.  And,  in  the 
second  place,  no  instrumentahty  less  universal  in  its 
power  and  authority  than  government  can  secure  popu- 
lar education.  .  .  .  Without  popular  education,  more- 
over, no  government  which  rests  upon  popular  action 
can  long  endure.  The  people  must  be  schooled  in  the 
knowledge,  and  if  possible  in  the  virtues,  upon  which  the 
maintenance  and  success  of  free  institutions  depend." 

Again,  within  the  present  year.  President  Charles  W. 
Dabney,  of  the  University  of  Cincinnati,  speaks  as  fol- 
lows: "Man  has,  indeed,  the  right  to  govern  himself, 
but  without  education  he  has  not  the  capacity.  Suf- 
frage is  not  a  natural  right  but  a  privilege  assigned  to 
those  who  qualify  themselves  for  its  proper  exercise  in 
accordance  with  a  standard  fixed  by  the  state.  All  men, 
except  abnormals,  possess  the  capacity  for  education, 
and  when  educated  have  the  power  to  govern  them- 
selves and  the  right  to  take  part  in  the  government  of 
others.  Democracy  means  self-government;  self-govern- 
ment necessitates  universal  education,  and  universal  edu- 
cation can  only  be  accomphshed  by  free  public  schools 
imder  the  control  of  all  the  people." 

In  this  series  of  expressions,  extending  through  a  pe- 
riod of  twenty-two  and  a  half  centuries,  what  a  remark- 


THE  FORWARD  LOOK  (  365 

able  persistency  is  seen  of  the  fundamental  note — the 
need  and  importance  of  education  as  a  safeguard  to 
the  state.  Yet  who  of  us  is  prepared  to  comprehend 
the  full  significance  of  this  principle  when  applied  to 
evolution  of  a  great  country  Uke  our  own?  What  is  to 
be  the  measure  of  this  knowledge,  this  information,  this 
intelligence  of  the  masses  as  we  sweep  on  to  still  unknown 
stages  of  our  national  Ufe  history?  We  know  that  in 
our  constructive  work — in  the  building  of  bridges,  of 
ships,  of  great  city  buildings  that  ascend  skyward — men 
begin  to  doubt  the  sufficiency  of  those  mathematical 
formulas  by  which,  heretofore,  the  builder  has  been  accus- 
tomed to  solve  problems  of  strength  and  resistance.  So, 
in  this  realm  of  the  human  understanding  of  great  social 
and  economic  problems,  who  is  to  say  what  shall  be  the 
measure  of  that  intelligence  and  that  wisdom  on  the 
part  of  a  great  body  of  people  whose  dwelUng-place  ex- 
tends so  far  and  includes  so  many  variations  in  those 
natural  forces  which  are  known  to  afifect  human  lives? 

2.    The  Problem  of  To-Day 

The  clear  note  struck  by  Aristotle  has  grown  chiefly 
in  volume  and  in  the  extent  of  its  application.  It  is  the 
remarkable  persistency  of  it  which  must  remove  the  last 
shred  of  any  doubt  that  may  have  lingered  in  our  minds. 
The  problem  of  to-day  is  to  find  what  applications  to 
make  of  this  principle  and  what  must  be  insisted  on  by 
society  as  the  minimum  amount  of  popular  education. 
/The  common  man,  no  matter  what  part  he  may  have 
in  the  industrial  world,  shares  equally  with  all  his  fel- 
lows in  that  concern  which  society  feels  lest  he  be  not 
equal  to  the  obligations  of  citizenship  in  this  great 
democracy.  The  man  of  wealth  and  leisure  society 
scans  no  less  dubiously  as  it  seeks  to  discern  the  proper 


366  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

fitting  of  his  sons  and  daughters  for  their  share  in  the 
common  heritage  of  civic  obligation.  With  every  indi- 
cation of  the  increase  in  the  numbers  of  those  physi- 
cally defective  or  morally  delinquent  all  normal  mem- 
bers of  the  social  body  instinctively  shudder.  Who  has 
not,  at  times,  caught  glimpses  of  this  thing  we  call 
democracy,  in  its  nakedness,  appearing  to  our  startled 
vision  as  some  grewsome  creature,  its  deformities  laid 
bare  in  some  lightning's  flash  of  circumstance? 

If  Aristotle  had  said  the  last  word  as  to  the  efficiency 
of  education  as  a  national  resource  we  might  be  excus- 
able if  we  looked  with  pessimistic  vision  toward  the 
future.  There  is  nothing  in  his  words  suggestive  either 
of  industrial  efficiency  or  of  social  conservation.  It  is 
in  the  fact  that  subsequent  ages  have  witnessed  a  vast 
increase  in  the  scope  and  meaning  of  popular  education 
that  we  find  grounds  for  a  splendid  optimism.  At  no 
time  in  the  history  of  education  has  there  been  seen  such 
a  broadening  and  deepening  of  educational  thought  and 
outlook  as  is  now  apparent.  We  are  in  the  midst  of  a 
great  social  movement  bounded  by  no  lands  and  by  no 
seas. 

3.    The  Great  Question  of  Social  Conservation 

Everjrwhere  we  hear  of  numerous  problems  which  are 
being  discussed,  such  as  the  following:  vocational  gui- 
dance and  education;  continuation  schools  and  schools 
for  the  out-of -school  classes;  child-labor  and  compul- 
sory-attendance legislation;  physical  education  and 
health,  including  the  playground  movement;  care  of 
the  poor  and  underfed;  sex-hygiene  and  moral  educa- 
tion; the  care  and  training  of  defectives  and  delin- 
quents; vacation  schools;  free  high  schools  for  all  with 
equitable  cost  of  schooling  as  affected  by  books,  dis- 


THE  FORWARD  LOOK  367 

tance  pupils  have  to  go,  or  transportation.  All  these 
are  but  parts  of  that  larger  social  movement — the 
great  question  of  social  conservation. 

4.     The  "Feeling  of  Nationality"  Our  Hope 

We  turn,  then,  to  the  one  steady,  persistent  hope  as 
we  read  its  interpretation  in  the  tendencies  of  to-day. 
From  the  clear  note  of  the  past,  blending  harmoniously 
with  the  stronger  tones  of  the  present,  we  read  the 
promise  of  future  security.  One  doubt  only  remains: 
Will  the  masses  also  hear  and  respond?  By  what  means 
are  we  to  arouse  and  concentrate  popular  interest  with 
sufficient  force  upon  the  task  of  perfecting  a  system  of 
free  public  education  that  is  equal  to  our  peculiar  situa- 
tion? "If  the  feeling  of  nationality  is  ahve  among  a 
people,"  writes  Doctor  Georg  Kerschensteiner,  "imify- 
ing  forces  appear  of  themselves  without  compulsion  from 
any  central  authority,  even  in  decentralized  govern- 
mental functions.  This  is  true  of  the  little  Swiss  fed- 
eration as  well  as  of  Germany  and  America,  and  it  is 
an  indication  that  healthy  organization,  adapted  to  the 
living  conditions  of  a  nation,  will  make  its  own  way 
everywhere." 

It  is  this  "feeling  of  nationality"  upon  which  we  must 
depend,  then,  for  the  further  and  more  adequate  devel- 
opment of  our  educational  forces  and  their  common  ac- 
ceptance by  the  masses.  It  is  upon  this  basis  that  the 
appeal  of  this  volume  is  made  to  the  American  public. 
Nothing  short  of  a  profound  faith  in  the  ultimate  ex- 
pression of  the  people  as  it  shall  appear  in  the  structures 
they  rear,  through  their  laws,  for  the  right  education 
of  aU  the  children  and  youth  of  the  land  can  bring 
order  and  security  to  this  democracy.  Our  school  sys- 
tem has  thus  far  successfully  met  and  turned  aside  the 


368  ADMINISTRATION  OF   EDUCATION 

dangers  of  ecclesiastical  control.  The  sway  of  the  poli- 
tician in  certain  departments  of  this  branch  of  social 
service  seems  to  be  steadily  waning.  We  have  still  to 
deal  with  a  certain  type  of  narrow  industrialism  that 
would  make  of  the  schools  a  training  place  for  human 
machines  instead  of  thinking  men  and  women  who  are 
bigger  than  their  jobs. 

Our  greatest  danger,  after  all,  seems  to  appear  among 
the  ranks  of  those  who  are  assumed  to  be  society's 
experts  in  the  field  of  education.  This  is  true  not  nec- 
essarily because  of  any  positive  attitude  or  movement 
against  those  readjustments  which  the  educational  situ- 
ation demands.  It  appears  more  in  a  negative  attitude 
of  indiflference  and  inaction,  too  often,  alas!  the  result 
of  ignorance  rather  than  deliberate  choice.  From  what 
has  been  presented  in  the  preceding  pages  there  appear  at 
least  five  things  which  should  be  insisted  upon.  In  this 
insistence  will  be  needed  that  "feeling  of  nationality" 
to  which  Doctor  Kerschensteiner  refers.  In  fact,  it  should 
have  an  intensity  amounting  to  real  patriotism — a  patri- 
otism strong  enough  to  enable  us  all,  educators,  legisla- 
tors, members  of  educational  boards,  and  all  others 
called  to  lead  in  the  promulgation  of  educational  ideals, 
to  put  aside  all  lesser  motives  for  the  nation's  good. 

5.    The  Five  Essentials  to  Progress 

The  five  things  most  necessary  are  as  follows:  i.  The 
thorough  and  continuous  study  of  the  present  and  changing 
social  needs,  both  local  and  national,  as  related  to  our  sys- 
tem of  public  education.  In  this  respect  it  seems  that  we 
have  been  guilty  of  serious  neglect.  The  present  indus- 
trial outcry  against  the  work  of  our  schools  is  in  evi- 
dence here.  Our  teachers  and  supervisors,  and  practi- 
cally all  institutions  for  the  training  of  teachers,  should 


THE  FORWARD  LOOK  360 

respond  promptly  and  wisely  to  this  call.  But  there 
should  be  no  undue  haste.  It  would  be  folly  for  the 
people  to  rush  to  the  building  of  special  schools  with 
none  prepared  to  teach  them.  No  less  ill-timed  would 
it  be  for  teachers  to  prepare  themselves  before  the  peo- 
ple are  ready  to  provide  for  the  lines  of  work  which 
industry  demands. 

The  people  are  too  ready  to  assume  that  anything 
may  be  taught  in  the  schools  by  simply  printing  it  in 
a  curriculum.  They  do  not  always  realize  that  the  time 
and  resources  of  the  schools  are  already  employed  to 
the  utmost  limit.  Many  unthinkingly  attribute  all  op- 
position by  teachers  and  supervisors  to  the  immediate 
introduction  of  vocational  courses  to  a  general  disap- 
proval of  such  work.  What  is  needed  is  that  all  should 
get  together.  Those  who  are  the  chosen  leaders  in  these 
matters  should  study  the  problem,  socially  and  educa- 
tionally, and  seek  to  adjust  the  schools  to  the  doing  of 
these  evidently  necessary  things  in  the  most  economic 
and  efficient  way  possible.  In  this  respect  America  has 
a  peculiar  problem  which  each  State  must  solve  in  its 
own  way.  And  this  will  be  done.  The  coming  school 
system  will  provide  equal  opportunity,  conmiensurately 
with  capacity,  for  the  training  of  every  future  citizen 
of  the  Republic  not  made  so  by  the  act  of  naturalization. 

2.  The  freeing  of  all  educational  experts  from  political 
infliience  in  their  appointment.  This  applies  to  all 
teachers  and  those  closely  related  to  the  administration 
of  instruction.  To  make  this  possible  every  superin- 
tendent of  schools,  every  principal  or  president  of  a 
school  or  an  institution,  should  be  selected  by  an  inter- 
mediary board  whose  members  are  chosen  at  large  for 
the  unit  of  control  which  they  represent  and  who  are 
elected  by  the  people  in  a  manner  distinct  from  regu- 


370  ADMINISTRATION  OF  EDUCATION 

lar  political  elections.  This  applies  to  districts,  cities, 
counties,  and  States,  and  is  a  vitally  essential  step  in 
the  forward  movement  of  education. 

3.  There  need  to  he  established  hy  all  the  States  right 
standards  for  the  preparation  of  teachers  and  supervising 
officers.  Some  States  have  already  led  in  the  fixing  of 
such  standards.  The  best  thought  of  the  coimtry  is 
pretty  generally  agreed  as  to  what  these  standards 
should  be.  If  there  remains  any  doubt,  it  is  with  ref- 
erence to  superintendents  and  supervisors.  Compara- 
tively Uttie  attention  has  been  given  to  the  special 
training  required  for  these  officials.  Yet  there  is  no 
point  in  our  system  of  education  where  the  need  of 
reform  is  more  acute.  The  obstacles  in  the  way  are 
selfish  rather  than  patriotic  motives.  The  "feeling  of 
nationality"  is  sadly  lacking  here. 

4.  The  principles  of  good  business  management  should 
be  much  mme  fully  applied  not  only  to  the  business  admin- 
istration of  education  but  also  to  many  matters  closely  re- 
lated to  the  administration  of  instruction.  There  needs 
to  be  a  better  accounting  system  for  the  finances  of  the 
schools;  but  along  with  this  should  also  be  a  fuller  ac- 
counting on  the  side  of  output,  of  achievement  of  the 
schools,  as  compared  with  the  investment,  in  capital 
and  lives,  which  society  is  annually  making  in  them. 
There  should  be  a  more  businesslike  management  of  the 
health  problem;  of  the  care  of  defectives  and  delin- 
quents; of  the  whole  business  of  classification,  both  as 
to  lines  of  preparation  which  individuals  should  pursue 
and  also  as  to  forward  movements  of  classes  or  indi- 
viduals in  the  processes  of  education. 

Our  whole  scheme  for  the  training  of  teachers  in  service 
is  crying  out  for  readjustment  in  the  interests  of  econ- 
omy and  effectiveness.     Too  many  teachers'  gatherings 


THE  FORWARD  LOOK  371 

are  held  without  sufficiently  definite  results.  The  feel- 
ing seems  to  prevail  that  they  can  be  made  to  atone 
for  inadequate  preparation.  Teachers  meet  together 
in  large  masses,  in  district,  State,  and  national  gather- 
ings, with  little  definite,  organized  work.  The  theory 
is  that  "inspiration"  is  the  great  thing  needed.  As  a 
consequence,  there  is  large  expenditure  of  time  and 
money  quite  out  of  proportion  to  the  results  attained. 
5.  There  is  urgent  necessity  that  more  care  he  taken  in 
the  cultivation  of  right  habits  and  the  inculcation  of  such 
ideals  as  shall  form  a  basis  for  a  better  morality  and  for 
good  conduct.  It  has  been  truthfully  said  that  intellec- 
tual keenness  is  the  most  powerful  instnmient  of  de- 
struction or  injury  which  can  be  put  at  the  disposal  of 
depraved  and  criminally  minded  members  of  society. 
Along  with  all  plans  for  the  betterment  of  instruction 
should  go  the  careful  adjustment  to  it  of  those  exer- 
cises, lessons,  and  experiences  which  shall  make  for  better 
character.  "Although  we  talk  a  good  deal  about  what 
the  wide-spread  education  of  this  country  means,"  says 
Theodore  Roosevelt,  "I  question  if  many  of  us  deeply 
consider  its  meaning.  From  the  lowest  grade  of  the 
public  school  to  the  highest  form  of  university  training, 
education  in  this  country  is  at  the  disposal  of  every 
man,  every  woman  who  chooses  to  work  for  and  obtain 
it.  .  .  .  Each  one  of  us,  then,  who  has  an  education, 
school  or  college,  has  obtained  something  from  the  com- 
munity at  large  for  which  he  or  she  has  not  paid,  and 
no  self-respecting  man  or  woman  is  content  to  rest  per- 
manendy  under  such  an  obligation.  Where  the  State 
has  bestowed  education  the  man  who  accepts  it  must 
be  content  to  accept  it  merely  as  a  charity  unless  he 
returns  it  to  the  State  in  full  in  the  shape  of  good  citi- 
zenship." 


REFERENCES  FOR  FURTHER  READING,  BY  CHAPTERS 
AND   IN  GENERAL 

Chapter  II.    National  Ideals  and  Standards 

1.  Draper,  Andrew  S.,  "The  Nation's  Educational  Purpose." 

N.  E.  A.  Proc,  1905. 

2.  Martin,   G.  H.,  "Evolution  of  the  Massachusetts  Public 

School  System." 

Chapter  III.    Evolution  of  the  Free  Common  School 

1.  Anderson,  L.  F.,  "History  of  Common  School  Education." 

Henry  Holt  and  Co.,  1909. 

2.  Brown,  S.  W.,  "The  Secularization  of  American  Education." 

Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univ.,  Contributions  to  Edu- 
cation, 1 9 10. 

3.  Campbell,  Douglass,  "The  Puritan  in  Holland,  England  and 

America,"  2  vols.     Harpers. 

4.  Kilpatrick,  W.  H.,  "The  Dutch  Schools  of  New  Netherland 

and  Colonial  New  York."     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Bulletin, 
1912,  no.  12. 

5.  Parker,  S.  C,  "The  History  of  Modem  Elementary  Educa- 

tion."    Ginn  and  Co.,  1912. 

Chapter  IV.    The  Establishment  of  Schools:   Laws  and 
Units  of  Control 

I.  Snyder,  Edwin  R.,  "The  Legal  Status  of  Rural  High  Schools 
in  the  United  States."     New  York,  1909. 

Chapter  VI.    The  System  as  Tested  by  the  Five  Princi- 
ples OF  Chapter  V 

1.  N.  E.  A.  Bulletin,  1913,  pp.  19-29. 

2.  Pritchett,  Henry  S.,  in  Carnegie  Foundation  Report,  191 1,  on 

"Educational  Progress  and  Tendencies  from  a  National 
Point  of  View,"  pp.  45-123. 
372 


REFERENCES  FOR  READING  373 

3.  Report  of  the  Michigan  State  Commission  on  Industrial  and 
Agricultural  Education,  Lansing,  Mich.,  1910. 

Chapter  VII.    Boards  of  Education 

1.  Ellis,  W.  S.,  "Organization  of  the  School  Board,"  N.  E.  A. 

Proc,  1910,  pp.  631-4. 

2.  Foght,  H.  W.,  "The  American  Rural  School,"  ch.  II.     Mac- 

millan,  191 1. 

3.  Hunsiker,  B.  L.,  "Functions  of  School  Boards."    N.  E.  A. 

Proc,  1903,  pp.  910-914. 

4.  Jones,  L.  H.,  "Best  Methods  of  Electing  School  Boards,"  N. 

E.  A.  Proc.,  1903,  pp.  158-9. 

5.  Moore,  E.  C,  "  How  New  York  City  Administers  Its  Schools." 

World  Book  Co.,  1913. 

6.  Report  of  the  Education  Commission  of  the  City  of  Chicago. 

Chicago,  1899. 

7.  Report  of  Commission  Appointed  to  Study  the  System  of 

Education  of  the  Public  Schools  of  Baltimore.     U.  S. 
Bureau  of  Ed.  Bulletin,  191 1,  no.  4. 

Chapter  VIII.    Maintenance  and  Other  Fiscal  Aspects 
OF  Education 

1.  Cubberley,  E.  P.,  "School  Funds  and  Their  Apportionment." 

Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univ.,  1906. 

2.  Elliott,  E.  C,  "Some  Fiscal  Aspects  of  Education  in  American 

Cities."     Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univ.,  1905. 

3.  Jackson,  Geo.  L.,  "The  Development  of  School  Support  in 

Colonial  Massachusetts."     Teachers  College,  Columbia 
Univ.,  1909. 

4.  Sies,  Raymond  W.,  "Teachers'  Pension  Systems  in  Great 

Britain."     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Bulletin,  1913,  no.  34. 

5.  Strayer,  G.  D.,  "  City  School  Expenditures."    Teachers  Col- 

lege, Columbia  Univ.,  Contributions  to  Education,  1905. 

6.  Updegrafi,  Harlan,  "A  Study  of  Expenses  of  City  School 

Systems."     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Bulletin,  191 2,  no.  5. 

Chapter  IX.    Preparation  of  Teachers 

I.  Brown,  J.   F.,   "The  Training  of  Teachers  for  Secondary 
Schools."     Macmillan,  191 1. 


374     .      ADMINISTRATION   OF   EDUCATION 

2.  Home,  H.  H.,  "The  Function  of  a  School  of  Pedagogy." 

Education  30  :  275-280. 

3.  Ruediger,  W.  C,  "Agencies  for  the  Improvement  of  Teachers 

in  Service."     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Bulletin,  191 1,  no.  3. 

4.  Williams,  H.  G.,  "The  Place  of  the  Normal  School  in  Educa- 

tion."    N.  E.  A.  Proc,  1909,  pp.  548-556. 

Chapter  X.    The  Selection  of  Teachers 

1.  Bachman,  F.  P.,  "  Certification  of  Teachers  Prepared  by  State 

Institutions."     Ediication  26  :  40. 

2.  Cowdrick,  "The Licensing  of  Teachers."     Education  ig  :  2gg. 

3.  Cubberley,  E.  P.,  in  Fifth  Year  Book,  part  II,  Nat.  Society 

for  the  Study  of  Ed.,  1906. 

4.  N.  E.  A.  Proc,  1897,  pp.  297-8.     "Round  Table  Discussion 

of  Certification." 

5.  N.  E.  A.  Proc,  1905,  pp.  240-1.     Report  of  Com.  on  "Inter- 

state Recognition  of  High  Grade  Teachers'  Certificates." 

6.  Updegraff,  Harlan,  "Teachers'  Certificates  Issued  under  Gen- 

eral State  Laws  and  Regulations."     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ed. 
Bulletin,  1911,  no.  18. 

Chapter  XL    Physical  Equipment  of  Schools 

1.  Dressier,  Fletcher  B.,  "School  Hygiene."     Macmillan,  1913. 

2.  Hollister,  H.  A.,  "Public  School  Buildings  and  Their  Equip- 

ment, with  Special  Reference  to  High  Schools."     Univ. 
of  111.  School  of  Education  Bulletin,  no.  i,  1909. 

Chapter  XIIL    Supervision 

1.  Bobbitt,    Franklin,    "The    Supervision    of    City    Schools." 

Twelfth  Year  Book,  part  I,  Nat.  Society  for  Study  of 
Ed.,  1913. 

2.  Chancellor  W,  E.,  "Our  Schools — Their  Administration  and 

Supervision."     D.  C.  Heath  and  Co.,  1905. 

3.  Jessup,  W.  A.,  "Social  Factors  Affecting  Special  Supervision." 

Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univ.,  Contributions  to  Edu- 
cation, 191 1. 

4.  Perry,  A.  C,  Jr.,  "The  Management  of  a  City  School." 

Macmillan,  1908. 


REFERENCES  FOR   READING  375 

5.  Suzzalo,  Henry,  "The  Rise  of  Local  School  Supervision  in 
Massachusetts."     New  York,  1906. 

Chapter  XIV.    The  Inspection  of  Schools 

1.  Henderson,  Joseph  L.,  "Admission  to  College  by  Certificate." 

Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univ.,  Contributions  to  Ed., 
1912. 

2.  "History  of  High  School  Inspection."   Bulletin  no.  2.    Board 

on  Secondary  School  Relations,  Iowa. 

3.  School  Laws  enacted  by  the  80th  General  Assembly  of  Ohio 

at  its  Extraordinary  Session,  1914. 

Chapter  XV.    School  Attendance 

1.  Ajrres,  Leonard  P.,  "Laggards  in  Our  Schools."     Russell  Sage 

Foundation,  New  York,  1909. 

2.  Keyes,  C.  H.,  "  Progress  through  the  Grades  of  City  Schools. 

A  Study  of  Acceleration  and  Arrest."     Teachers  College, 
Columbia  Univ.,  191 1. 

3.  Strayer,  G.  D.,  "Age  and  Grade  Census  of  Schools  and  Col- 

leges."    U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Bulletin,  191 1,  no.  5. 

4.  Thomdike,  E.  L.,  "The  Elimination  of  Pupils  from  School." 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Bulletin,  1907,  no.  4. 

Chapter  XVI.    Physical  Education  and  Health 

1.  Gulick  and  Ayres,  "Medical  Inspection  of  Schools."    Russell 

Sage  Foundation,  New  York,  1908. 

2.  Wood,  Dr.  Thomas  D.,  "Health  and  Education."    Nmth 

Year  Book,  part  I,  Nat.  Society  for  the  Study  of  Ed.,  1910. 
Wood,  Dr.  Thomas  D.  and  others,  "The  Nurse  in 
Education."    Ninth  Year  Book,  part  II,  do. 

Chapter  XVII.    The  Curricula  of  the  Schools 

1.  Brown,  J.  F.,  "The  American  High  School,"  ch.  III.     Mac- 

millan,  1909. 

2.  HoUister,  H.   A.,  "The   Program  of  Studies,"   ch.   VII  in 

"High  School  Administration."    D.  C.  Heath  and  Co., 
1909. 

3.  McMurry,  Frank  M.,  Report  as  Member  of  Committee  on 

School  Inquiry.     New  York  City,  19x3. 


376  ADMINISTRATION   OF  EDUCATION 

4.  Miinsterberg,  Hugo,  "Vocation  and  Learning."     The  Peo- 

ple's University,  St.  Louis,  1912. 

5.  Row,  Robert  K.,  "The  Educational  Meaning  of  Manual  Arts 

and  Industries."     Row,  Peterson  and  Co.,  1909. 

6.  Snedden,  David  S.,  "The  Problem  of  Vocational  Education." 

Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1910. 

Chapter  XVIII.    The  Teacher 

1.  Bagley,  W.  C,  "Craftsmanship  in  Teaching."     Macmillan, 

1911. 

2.  Coffman,  L.  D.,  "The  Social  Composition  of  the  Teaching 

Population."     Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univ.,  Con- 
tributions to  Education,  191 1. 

3.  Colgrove,  C.  P.,  "The  Teacher  and  the  School."     Scribners. 

4.  Perry,  Arthur  C,  Jr.,  "The  Status  of  the  Teacher."     Hough- 

ton Mifflin  Co.,  191 2. 

5.  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  "The  Teaching  Staff  of  the  Secondary 

Schools  of  the  United  States."     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ed, 
Bulletin,  1909,  no.  4. 

Chapter  XIX.     Classification  and  Promotions 

1.  Blan,  L.  B.,  "A  Special  Study  of  the  Incidence  of  Retarda- 

tion."    Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univ.,  Contributions 
to  Education,  1911. 

2.  Dearborn,  Walter  D.,  "The  Relative  Standing  of  Pupils  in 

the  High  School  and  in  the  University."     University  of 
Wisconsin  Bulletin,  no.  312,  High  School  Series,  no.  6. 

3.  Sies,  Raymond  W.,  "Scientific  Grading  of  College  Students." 

Univ.  of  Pittsburg  Bulletin,  vol.  VIII,  no.  21. 

4.  VanSickle-Witner-Ayres,  "Provision  for  Exceptional  Children 

in  Public  Schools."     U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Bulletin,  191 1, 
no.  14. 

Chapter  XX.    Activities  and  Relations  of  the  School 

1.  Perry,  C.  A.,  "The  Wider  Use  of  the  School  Plant."     Russell 

Sage  Foundation,  New  York,  1910. 

2.  "The  City  School  as  a  Community  Centre."     Tenth  Year 

Book,  part  I,  Nat.  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education. 

3.  "The  Rural  School  as  a  Community  Centre."    Tenth  Year 

Book,  part  II,  do. 


REFERENCES  FOR  READING       377 


Chapter  XXI.    Private  Education  and  Benefactions  as 
Related  to  Public  Education 

I.  Bureau  of  Ed.  Report,  1911,  vol.  I,  pp.  29-34. 

In  General 

1.  Bard,  H.  E.,  "The  City  School  District."    Teachers  College 

Columbia  Univ.,  Contributions  to  Education,  1909. 

2.  Butler,   Nicholas  Murray,   "The   Meaning  of  Education," 

Macmillan,  1898. 

3.  Cubberley,  E.  P.,  and  others,  Report  of  Survey  of  the  Public 

School  System  of  the  City  of  Portland,  Ore. 

4.  Davenport,    Eugene,    "Education    for    Efficiency."     D.    C. 

Heath  and  Co.,  1909. 

5.  Draper,    Andrew    S.,    "American    Education."      Houghton 

Mifflin  Co.,  1909. 

6.  Education  in  Vermont,  Bulletin  No.  7,  parts  I  and  II.     The 

Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Learning. 

7.  Garber,  J.  P.,  "Current  Educational  Activities."     Lippin- 

cott,  1912. 

8.  Hoag,   Ernest   B.,   "Organized   Health   Work  in   Schools," 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin,  1913,  no.  44. 

9.  Johnston,  C.  H.,  and  others.      "High  School  Education." 

Scribners,  191 2. 

10.  Kerschensteiner,  Georg,  "A  Comparison  of  Public  Education 

in  Germany  and  in  the  United  States."     U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Education  Bulletin,  1913,  no.  24. 

11.  King,  Irving,  "Social  Aspects  of  Education."     Macmillan, 

191 2.     (Contains  well-chosen  bibliographies  on   several 
topics  discussed  in  the  preceding  pages.) 

12.  Maxwell,  William  H.,  "A  Quarter  Century  of  Public  School 

Development."     American  Book  Co.,  191 2. 

13.  Strayer    and   Thorndike,    "Educational    Administration." 

Macmillan,  1913. 

14.  Yocum,   A.    D.,    "Culture,   Discipline    and    Democracy." 

Christopher  Sower  Co.,  191 3. 


INDEX 


{Numbers  refer  to  pages) 


Academic  freedom,  246. 

Academy  of  Arts  and  Sdences,  Bos- 
ton, 41. 

Adams  Act,  17. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  41. 

Adams,  John,  41,  42,  43. 

Administration  denned,  221-223. 

Alabama,  127,  259. 

All-year  schools,  353. 

American  Institute  of  Homeopathy, 
286. 

American  Medical  Association,  282, 
286. 

Anderson,  L.  F.,  24. 

Anglo-Saxon,  7,  140. 

Annapolis,  20,  70. 

Appalachians,  19. 

Appointments  Committees,  202. 

Aristotle,  i,  43,  362,  365. 

Arkansas,  127,  259. 

Athens,  Ga.,  259. 

Athens,  Ohio,  257. 

Attendance,  compulsory,  99,  100,  253, 
268,  269,  271,  27s,  360. 

Austraha,  4. 

Austria,  27,  29. 

Ayres,  Leonard  P.,  272,  278. 

Bagley,  W.  C,  160. 

Balliet,  T.  M.,  61,  62. 

Baltimore,  65,  122. 

Bard,  H.  E.,  161. 

Barnard,  Henry,  134. 

Barrows,  Miss,  294,  295. 

Belgium,  26. 

Berlin,  43. 

Binet-Simon  tests,  290. 

Blewett,  Superintendent  Ben,  353. 

Board  of  Education,  State,  51,  66,  69, 

113,  114,  129-131. 
Boards  of  Education  of  different  units 

(chapter),  106-132. 
Boston,  140,  232,  282. 
Boston  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sdences, 

41. 


Bowling  Green,  Ohio,  254. 

Boyville,  274. 

British  Isles,  40. 

Brown,  Elmer  £.,  166. 

Buchanan,  President,  16. 

Bureau  of  Education,  United  States, 

17,  70,  83. 
Butler,  Nicholas  Murray,  21,  22. 

Califorota,  46,  50,  63,  66,  70,  91,  96, 
194,  204,  255,  272,  349. 

Cambridge,  England,  40. 

Cambridge,  Mass.,  232,  331-332. 

Campbell,  Douglass,  40. 

Campbell,  Fred  M.,  145. 

Canada,  4,  360. 

Canadian  provinces,  297. 

Cariton,  F.  L.,  134,  135,  137. 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  215,  360. 

Carnegie  Foundation,  157,  360. 

Carnegie  Institute,  360. 

Carter,  James  G.,  17,  20,  126. 

Certificating  Board,  College  Entrance, 
253- 

Certification,  65,  69,  186-189. 

Chicago,  80,  122. 

Child-labor  laws,  271,  275,  276,  360. 

Cindnnati,  78. 

Cincinnati  University,  258,  364. 

City  training  schools,  80,  171,  172. 

Civil  War,  41,  49,  173. 

Classification  and  promotions  (chap- 
ter), 326-340. 

Cleveland,  80,  348,  351,  353. 

Clews,  33,  34,  133. 

Coffman,  L.  D.,  314. 

College  Entrance  Certificating  Board, 
253- 

Colonies,  2,  17,  29;  38-40;  45,  48,  134. 

Colorado,  47,  194,  268. 

Colorado  Normal  School,  204. 

Columbia,  District  of,  70,  286. 

Columbia  University,  35,  175. 

Columbus,  Ohio,  254. 

Comenius,  41,  43. 


379 


380 


INDEX 


Commissioner  of  Education,  United 

States,  17,  143,  19s,  268,  356. 
Comp>ensation  of  teachers,  151-155. 
Compulsory  attendance,  99,  100,  253, 

268,  269,  271,  275,  360. 
Congress,  14,  16,  19,  45,  71,  i34.  360. 
Connecticut,  15,  33,  47,  57,  68,  127, 

133,  143.  179,  186. 
Continuation  schools,  75,  79,  240,  366. 
Cousin,  M.  Victor,  43. 
Cubberley,  E.  P.,  142,  194,  198. 
Ciuricula  of  the  schools  (chapter),  289- 

312. 

Dabney,  Charles  W.,  364. 

Daily  programme,  341-42. 

Dartmouth  College,  34. 

Declaration  of  Independence,  44. 

Defectives,  81,  82,  84,  105,  121,  217, 
227,  240,  276,  301,  366,  370. 

Delaware,  35,  40,  68,  78,  80. 

Delinquents,  81,  82,  84,  105,  217,  227, 
275.  366,  370. 

Demosthenes,  317. 

Denmark,  26,  29. 

Denver,  204. 

Department  of  Superintendents  of 
the  National  Education  Associa- 
tion, 338. 

Detroit,  140. 

Dewey,  John,  305,  306. 

Direct  taxation,  141. 

District  of  Columbia,  70,  286. 

Draper,  Lyman,  134. 

Dutch,  I,  26,  35,  36,  40,  41. 

Dutton  and  Snedden,  65,  68. 

Education,  166. 

Education  Board,  General,  66,   254, 

258,  259,  360. 
Educational  foundations,  359. 
Educational  Review,  178. 
Eliot,  Charles  W.,  139,  140. 
Elliott,  E.  C,  249. 
Elmira  experiment,  317. 
England,  27,  28,  39,  41,  135. 
Ethical  and  professional  attitude  of 

the  teacher,  317-321. 
Evolution   of    free    common   schools 

(chapter),  24-42. 
Extension  work,  350-51. 

Fairlie,  J.  A.,  60,  62,  65,  68. 
Fatigue,  342-43- 
Federal  Government,  15-17,  20. 
Federal  policy  concerning  education, 

14;  16-17,  19,  21. 
Feeling  of  nationality,  367-68. 


Fellenberg,  43. 

Ferdinand  William  III,  25. 

Ferry,  M.,  29. 

Fichte,  43. 

Five  essentials  of  progress,  368-370. 

Florida,  66,  112,  127,  128,  194,  259. 

Foght,  H.  W.,  297. 

France,  2,  21,  28,  29,  41,  42,  115. 

Francis,  J.  H.,  211,  349. 

Franco-Prussian  War,  2,  28. 

Franklin,  41,  43. 

Frederick  the  Great,  25. 

French,  F.  G.,  26. 

Froebel,  76. 

GaRDENA  mCH  SCHOOL,  348. 
Gary,  Ind.,  76,  229,  307. 
General  Court  of  Elections,  33. 
General    Education  Board,  66,   254; 

258-260. 
George  Jr.  Republic,  274,  306. 
Geoi'gia,  37,  47,  66,   112,  127,   194, 

259- 
German  Empire,  2,  25,  106,  347,  367. 
German  Universities,  43. 
Germanic  races,  52. 
Goodnow,  F.  J.,  65. 
Gottingen,  43. 
Governor  Wentworth,  34. 
Granville,  III.,  16. 
Greek  scholars,  29. 
Guizot's  law,  28. 
Gulick,  Luther  G.,  9,  278. 

Haaren,    Associate    Superintend- 
ent, 269. 
Hackney,  E.  T.,  255. 
Halle,  43. 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  14,  126. 
Hampton,  306. 
Hanus,  Paul  H.,  122,  310. 
Harper,  William  R.,  122. 
Harris,  William  T.,  138. 
Harvard  College,  33,  232. 
Hawley,  Gideon,  68. 
Helen  Kellar,  317. 
Henderson,  Joseph  L.,  264,  265. 
Hogarth,  A.  H.,  278. 
Holland,  26,  29,  40. 
Holmes,  Doctor  George  J.,  278. 
Hood,  William  H.,  156. 
Humboldt,  29. 

Idaho,  47,  194. 

Illinois,  63,  64,  91,  194,  258. 

Illinois  Educational  Commission,  65, 

68. 
Independence  Day,  238. 


INDEX 


381 


Indiana,  46,  S7.  62,  64,  153,  179,  255, 

268,  286,  287. 
Industrial  education,  79,  89. 
Industrial  League,  16. 
Inspection,  medical,  93,  94,  233,  278, 

279,  282,  285. 
Inspection  of  Schools  (chapter),  249- 

265. 
Iowa,  57, 62,  70, 91, 143,  256,  258,  264. 
Italy,  2. 

Jaiies,  Eduund  J.,  16. 
Japan,  2,  8. 
Jeanes  Fund,  361. 
Jeanes,  Miss  Anna  L.,  361. 
Jefferson,  Thomas,  14,  36;  41-43;  50, 

363- 
Jessup,  W.  A.,  228. 
Johnston,  C.  H.,  249. 
Journal  oj  Education,  138. 

Kansas,  67,  70,  112,  114,  187,  194, 

255,  264,  287. 
Kent,  Ohio,  257. 

Kentucky,  66,  112,  119,  127,  259. 
Kerschensteiner,  Doctor  Georg,  357, 

367,  368. 
King's  College,  35. 
Kirkpatrick,  W.  H.,  35. 
Klemm,  L.  R.,  25,  27. 
Knox,  John,  28. 

Landrath,  31. 

Landrecht,  25. 

Latin  schools,  26,  172. 

Latin  states,  29. 

Leland  Stanford  University,  285. 

Leyden,  40. 

Library  of  Congress,  83. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  16. 

Locke,  John,  40,  41,  43. 

Long  Island  City,  349. 

Los  Angeles,  76,  204,  211,  307,  310, 

348,  349- 
Louisiana,  57,  66,  127,  180,  194,  257. 
Louisiana  Purchase,  49. 
Lunch  problem,  344-345. 
Luther,  Martin,  43,  362. 

McCall,  Charles  A.,  275-276. 
McClymonds,  J.  W.,  333. 
McMurry,  Frank  M.,  310. 
Maine,  127,  169,  179. 
Maintenance   of   schools,    a  working 

scheme,  146-15 1. 
Manhattan,  334,  335. 
Mann,  Horace,  18,  20,  54,  126,  363. 
Manual  training  schools,  75,  79. 


Maria  Theresa,  27. 

Martin,  G.  H.,  12. 

Maryland,  36,  66,  127. 

Massachusetts,  i,  12,  15,  17,  18,  20, 
29,  32,  ii,  37,  42,  44,  47,  48,  53,  6i, 
68,  126,  133,  143,  169,  179,  186,  252, 
263,  287,  363. 

Massachusetts  Bay,  133. 

Maxwell,  Superintendent  W.  H.,  273, 

274,  334- 
Medical  Association,  American,   282, 

286. 
Medical  education,  254. 
Medical  inspection,  93,  94,  233,  278, 

279,  282,  285. 
Memphis,  348. 
Mexican  lands,  49. 
Michigan,  47,  57,  62,  112,  194,  254, 

255,  268,  287. 
Michigan  State  Commission,  298. 
Military  schools,  75. 
Milton,  41,  43. 
Milwaukee,  351. 
Minnesota,  47,  50,  57,  70,  179,  180, 

25s.  287. 
Mississippi,  47,  78,  112,  127,  143,  194, 

259. 
Missouri,  47,  57,  62,  194,  255,  268. 
Mobile,  65. 
Monastic  schools,  24. 
Montana,  112,  194,  255. 
Moore,  E.  C,  122,  132,  150. 
Morrill  Act,  16,  17. 

Napoleon,  28,  42. 

Napoleonic  wars,  2,  25. 

Nashville,  204. 

National  Association  of  State  Univer- 
sities, 265. 

National  Education  Association,  122, 
152. 

National  University,  14,  19. 

Nautical  schools,  75,  79. 

Naval  school,  70. 

Naval  training  stations,  70. 

Naval  war  college,  70. 

Nelson  amendment,  17. 

Netherlands,  26,  41. 

Nevada,  47,  80. 

New  Amsterdam,  i,  12. 

Newark,  N.  J.,  275,  278,  290,  352, 353. 

New  England,  12,  18,  20;  36-38;  40, 
44,  57,  61,  76,  117,  126,  127,  129, 
133,  134,  186,  229,  253,  363. 

Newfoundland,  360. 

New  Hampshire,  34,  127,  268,  287. 

New  Jersey,  35,  62,  68,  112,  143,  194, 
276. 


382 


INDEX 


New  York,  15,  35,  40,  42,  47,  50,  68, 

76,  115,  126,  128,  169, 180,  194,  209, 

216,  229,  253,  263. 
New  York  City,  78,  80,  122,  132,  140, 

269,  270,  273,  274,  294,  310,  334, 

350,  360. 
New  York  City  University,  61,  150. 
New  Zealand,  4. 
Nomination     and     appointment     of 

teachers,  199-208. 
Normal  schools,  15,  26,  28,  30,  46,  69, 

75,  80,  104,  166;  168-175;  i77i  179. 

24s,  261,  262,  354,  357. 
North  Carolina,  36, 44, 66,  77,  78, 127, 

250- 
North  Central  States,  254,  255. 
North  Dakota,  46,  57,  62,  255. 
Northwest  Territory,  44,  49. 
Norway,  27,  29. 
Nussbaum,  Miss  Sophie,  26. 

Oakland,   Cal.,  56,   145,   204,   208, 

274.  333,  337- 
Ohio,  57,  62,  78,  112,  179,  194,  256, 

257,  264,  286,  349. 
Ohio  Normal  Colleges,  257. 
Ohio  Normal  Schools,  257. 
Ohio  State  University,  256. 
Oklahoma,  47;  112-115;  195. 
Ordinance  of  1787,  14,  49,  134,  363. 
Oregon,  66,  112,  143. 
Orient,  2. 

Oxford,  England,  40. 
Oxford,  Ohio,  257. 

Parental  schools,  268,  273,  275 

Parish  system,  37,  52. 

Peabody  College  for  Teachers,  80. 

Pennsylvania,  i,  12,  15,  34,  40,  47,  62, 
127,  134,  169,  194.  288,  349. 

Penn,  William,  34. 

Pensions,  teachers',  156-160. 

Persistence  of  an  educational  ideal, 
362-365. 

Personality  in  teaching,  316,  317. 

Pestalozzi,  43. 

Philadelphia,  78,  80,  204,  361. 

Philippines,  70. 

Physical  education,  228,  234,  240,  279, 
280,  300,  366. 

Physical  education  and  health  (chap- 
ter), 277-288. 

Pilgrims,  40,  41,  48. 

Plato,  I,  43. 

Playground  and  Recreation  Associa- 
tion, 287. 

Playgrounds,  124,  279;  286-288. 

Play  instinct,  343. 


Popular  support  of  schools,  133-141. 

Portland,  Ore.,  122. 

Porto  Rico,  70. 

Preparation    of    teachers    (chapter), 

164-181;  223,  224. 
Prevocational  schools,  307. 
Principles  by  which  to  test  schools,  72- 

75;  90-105- 
Pritchett,  Henry  S.,  157,  158,  357. 
Private   education    and    benefactions 

(chapter),  356-361. 
Providence,  R.  I.,  288. 
Prussia,  2,  16,  21,  25;  29-31;  230. 
Psychological  clinic,  94,  105,  215,  233, 

280,  283. 

Quakers,  i,  34. 

Ramage,  J.  R.,  37. 
Reconstruction  period,  49. 
Reformation,  12,  24,  26,  27,  29,  32,  38, 

133- 
Reformatories,  268. 
Regents'  examinations,  253. 
Renaissance,  29. 
Rest,  344. 

Revolutionary  war,  37,  42. 
Rhode  Island,  15,  70,  77,  127,  179, 

288. 
Rockefeller,  John  D.,  360. 
Rockies,  19. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  371. 
Rousseau,  43. 
Royce,  Josiah,  304. 
Rural  schools,  84-87;  103,  104,   137, 

170,  202,  229,  293,  29s;  297-299; 

361. 
Russell  Sage  Foundation,  93,  282,  286, 

361. 
Russia,  29. 

Sage,  Mrs.  Russell,  361. 

Saint  Louis,  80,  140,  162,  310,  353. 

San  Antonio,  282. 

San  Francisco,  65,  140. 

Scandinavia,  2. 

School  accounting,  161-163. 

School  and  Home  Education,  160. 

School  as  a  community,  347-348. 

School  attendance  (chapter),  266-276. 

School  buildings,  210-215. 

School  gardens,  348. 

School  legislation,  44-5 1 . 

School  savings-banks,  349. 

Scotland,  27-29;  40,  178. 

Scriptures,  28. 

Secularization  of  education,  5,  32, 134. 

Sequence  in  education,  289-290. 


INDEX 


383 


Sierras,  19. 

Sies,  Raymond  W.,  339. 

Smith,  A.  T.,  27,  28. 

Smith,  C.  L.,  36. 

Smithsonian  Institution,  83. 

Snedden  and  Button,  65,  68. 

Snedden,  David,  178. 

Social  survey,  294,  295. 

South  Carolina,  37,  47,  49,  66,  78,  127, 

143,  194,  259- 
South  Dakota,  57,  62,  91,  112,  180, 

194,  ass- 
Spain,  I. 

Spokane,  204. 

State  Universities,  National  Associa- 
tion of,  26s. 

Stewart,  J.  S.,  2S9. 

Supervision  of  schools,  85-87;  (chap- 
ter), 225-248;  (definition),  249- 
252. 

Swiss  Federation,  367. 

Switzerland,  29. 

Taxation,  7,  48,  135,  137,  138,  140, 

141. 
Taxation,  direct,  141. 
Teachers'  Agency,  202. 
Teachers  College,  175,  232. 
Technical  schools,  75,  79. 
Tennessee,  57,  66,  80,  127,  179,  194, 

259,  268. 
Terman,  Doctor,  285. 
Texas,   47,  49,   127,    180,   255,   259, 

268. 
The  teacher  (chapter),  313-325. 
Thorndike,  E.  L.,  276,  304. 
Trade  schools,  75,  79. 
Training  schools,  city,  80,  171,  172. 
Truancy,  267,  273,  274. 
Turkish  domain,  27. 
Turner,  J.  B.,  16. 
Tuskegee,  306. 
Types  of  schools  established,  75-83. 

United  States  Bukeau  op  Educa- 
tion, 17,  70,  83. 


United  States  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, 17,  143,  19s,  268,  356. 

Units  of  control,  52-71;  83-88;  241. 

Universal  education,  12. 

Universities,  26,  27,  28,  30,  69,  75,  78, 
104,  246,  254,  261,  263,  264,  288, 
29s,  300,  354,  356,  357- 

University  of  Chicago,  258. 

University  of  Cincinnati,  258,  364. 

University  of  Colorado,  204. 

University  of  Copenhagen,  26. 

University  of  Illinois,  16. 

University  of  Michigan,  42. 

University  of  Minnesota,  258. 

University  of  Missouri,  339-340. 

University  of  New  York,  14. 

University  of  Texas,  264. 

Utah,  46,  147,  180,  268. 


Vacation  schools,  75,  351,  352,  354, 

366. 
Vermont,  127. 
Virginia,  36,  37,  47,  50,  78,  112,  127, 

143,  204,  258. 
Visiting  nurse,  233. 
Vocational  guidance,  240,  294,  295. 
Vocationally  selective  courses,  294. 

Washington,  D.  C,  70,  360. 
Washington,  George,  14,  19. 
Washington  State,  47,  96. 
Wentworth,  Governor,  34. 
West  Point,  20,  70. 
West  Virginia,  112,  258. 
William  and  Mary's  College,  78. 
Wilson,  President  Woodrow,  364. 
Wirt,  Superintendent,  307. 
Wisconsin,    169,   255,   268,   288,  353, 

355- 
Wolfe,  L.  E.,  348. 
Woodward,  C.  M.,  140. 
Wyoming,  47,  80. 
Wythe,  36. 


Yale  College,  33. 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


12  19^ 


SlIlBJECf  TOFINEIF 

EDUCATIO^l 


NOV  18  1947 

^t/G  1  7  1942  ^ 
JUN  121950 

DEC  15  195? 

NOV  2  3  RECD 

JAN  2  1 1959 
JU12  8  1959 

NOV  3  0  1959 
MAR2  9  1NQ 

JUL  1  9  1961 

Form  L-9-15in-T,'82 


Uax  RETURNED  TO 

LIBRARY 


MAY  2      1962 


UCLA-EO/PSYCH  Library 

LB  2805  H72a 


L  005  605  966  O 


UNIVERSITY  of  CALIFORNIA 


UBRABY 


m^^ 


fsgas 


tfiimsiimmmtiH 


